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en:Andorra ประเทศอันดอร์รา

ประวัติศาสตร์

บทความหลัก: ประวัติศาสตร์อันดอร์รา

ยุคก่อนประวัติศาสตร์

ศาสนสถานยุคก่อนประวัติศาสตร์ Roc de les Bruixes ใน Canillo

ถ้ำ La Balma de la Margineda ซึ่งถูกค้นพบโดยนักโบราณคดีที่ซันฌูลิอาดาลอริอา มีการตั้งถิ่นฐานมาตั้งแต่ราว 9,500 ปีก่อนคริสต์ศักราช โดยใช้เป็นจุดผ่านระหว่างสองฝั่งของเทือกเขาพิรินี แคมป์ชั่วฤดูกาลแห่งนี้ตั้งอยู่ในตำแหน่งที่เหมาะสมสำหรับการล่าสัตว์และการจับปลาโดยกลุ่มนักล่า–ผู้เก็บของป่าจาก Ariege และ Segre

ในช่วงยุคหินใหม่ มีกลุ่มคนย้ายเข้ามายังหุบเขา Madriu (ซึ่งปัจจุบันเป็นอุทยานธรรมชาติในอัสกัลดัส-อังกูร์ดัญ และได้รับการขึ้นทะเบียนเป็นแหล่งมรดกโลก) เพื่อสร้างที่ตั้งถาวรเมื่อประมาณ 6,640 ปีก่อนคริสต์ศักราช ประชากรในหุบเขาแห่งนี้เพาะปลูกธัญพืช เลี้ยงสัตว์ และทำการค้ากับผู้คนจาก Ségre และ Occitania.

หลักฐานทางโบราณคดีอื่น ๆ รวมถึงสุสานที่ Segudet (อูร์ดินู) และ Feixa del Moro (ซันฌูลิอาดาลอริอา) ซึ่งมีอายุราว 4900–4300 ปีก่อนคริสต์ศักราช ถือเป็นตัวอย่างของวัฒนธรรมอูร์นในอันดอร์รา แบบแผนการตั้งถิ่นฐานขนาดเล็กเริ่มพัฒนาไปสู่รูปแบบเมืองที่ซับซ้อนมากขึ้นในยุคสัมฤทธิ์ วิศวกรรมโลหการ เช่น เครื่องมือเหล็ก เหรียญโบราณ และวัตถุศักดิ์สิทธิ์สามารถพบได้ในสถานศักดิ์สิทธิ์โบราณที่กระจายอยู่ทั่วประเทศ

ศาสนสถาน Roc de les Bruixes (แปลว่า “หินแห่งแม่มด”) ถือเป็นแหล่งโบราณคดีที่สำคัญที่สุดในยุคนี้ของอันดอร์รา ตั้งอยู่ใน Canillo เชื่อกันว่าเกี่ยวข้องกับพิธีศพ อักษรโบราณ และจิตรกรรมฝาผนัง

ยุคไอบีเรียและโรมันแห่งอันดอร์รา

เส้นทางของแฮนนิบัล (สีแดง) ระหว่างสงครามพิวนิกครั้งที่สอง ชนเผ่าไอบีเรีย (สีเขียว) ต่อสู้กับกองทัพคาร์เธจในเทือกเขาพิรินี

ผู้อยู่อาศัยในหุบเขาเหล่านี้มีความเกี่ยวข้องกับชาวไอบีเรียตามธรรมเนียม และถูกบันทึกทางประวัติศาสตร์ว่าเป็นชนเผ่าไอบีเรียที่ชื่อว่า Andosins หรือ Andosini (Ἀνδοσίνους) ซึ่งตั้งถิ่นฐานอยู่ในบริเวณอันดอร์รา ระหว่างศตวรรษที่ 7 ถึงศตวรรษที่ 2 ก่อนคริสต์ศักราช ภายใต้อิทธิพลของภาษาเคลต์ดั้งเดิม อากีตาเนียน บาสก์ และภาษาไอบีเรีย ชาวท้องถิ่นได้พัฒนาชื่อภูมิศาสตร์บางส่วนที่ยังคงปรากฏอยู่ในปัจจุบัน หลักฐานเอกสารที่เก่าแก่ที่สุดเกี่ยวกับกลุ่มคนเหล่านี้มาจากศตวรรษที่ 2 ก่อนคริสต์ศักราช โดยนักเขียนชาวกรีกพอลิเบียส ในผลงาน Histories ของเขา ซึ่งกล่าวถึงช่วงสงครามพิวนิก

หลักฐานสำคัญบางส่วนจากยุคนี้ ได้แก่ ปราสาท Roc d’Enclar (ซึ่งเป็นส่วนหนึ่งของภูมิภาคชายแดนฮิสปาเนีย) l'Anxiu ใน Les Escaldes และ Roc de L'Oral ใน Encamp

การมีอยู่ของอิทธิพลจักรวรรดิโรมัน ถูกบันทึกตั้งแต่ศตวรรษที่ 2 ก่อนคริสต์ศักราช จนถึงศตวรรษที่ 5 สถานที่ที่มีหลักฐานการตั้งถิ่นฐานของโรมันมากที่สุดคือ Camp Vermell (“ทุ่งแดง”) ในซันฌูลิอาดาลอริอา รวมถึงบางพื้นที่ใน Encamp และ Roc d'Enclar ผู้คนยังคงทำการค้า โดยเฉพาะไวน์และธัญพืช กับเมืองโรมัน Urgellet (ปัจจุบันคือลาแซ็วดูร์เฌ็ลย์) และตามเส้นทาง via romana Strata Ceretana (หรือที่รู้จักในชื่อ Strata Confluetana)

ยังไม่แปล

วิซิกอธและยุคคาโรแลงเจียน: ตำนานชาร์เลอมาญ

Charlemagne ทรงสั่งสอนโอรสLouis the Pious

หลังการล่มสลายของจักรวรรดิโรมัน อันดอร์ราอยู่ภายใต้อิทธิพลของวิซิกอธ ราชอาณาจักรโทเลโด และสังฆมณฑลอูร์เญย์ ชาววิซิกอธพำนักอยู่ในหุบเขาเป็นเวลา 200 ปี ซึ่งในช่วงเวลาดังกล่าวคริสต์ศาสนาแบบกอทิกได้แพร่หลาย เมื่อจักรวรรดิอัลอันดะลุสเข้ามาแทนที่วิซิกอธที่ปกครองคาบสมุทรไอบีเรียส่วนใหญ่ อันดอร์ราจึงอยู่ภายใต้เขตอำนาจของชาวแฟรงก์.

ตำนานเล่าว่า กษัตริย์ชาร์เลอมาญ (Charles the Great) ได้พระราชทานกฎบัตรแก่ชาวอันดอร์รา สำหรับกำลังพลจำนวน 5,000 นาย ภายใต้การนำของ Marc Almugaver เพื่อแลกกับการต่อสู้กับชนเผ่าMoors ใกล้Porté-Puymorens (Cerdanya).

หกตำบลดั้งเดิม ซึ่งแต่ละแห่งตั้งชื่อตามpatron saint ปรากฏใน Acta de Consagració i Dotació de la Catedral de la Seu d'Urgell (839)

อันดอร์รายังคงเป็นส่วนหนึ่งของMarca Hispanica ของแฟรงก์ เขตกันชนระหว่างจักรวรรดิแฟรงก์กับดินแดนมุสลิม โดยอยู่ในเขตปกครองของเคานท์แห่งอูร์เญย์ และต่อมาอยู่ภายใต้อำนาจของพระสังฆราชแห่งสังฆมณฑลอูร์เญย์ ตามตำนานเล่าว่า สิทธิและสถานะดังกล่าวได้รับการรับรองโดยโอรสของชาร์เลอมาญ คือLouis the Pious ผ่านเอกสาร Carta de Poblament หรือกฎบัตรเทศบาลท้องถิ่นราวปี ป. 805.

เอกสารฉบับแรกที่กล่าวถึงอันดอร์ราในฐานะดินแดนคือ Acta de Consagració i Dotació de la Catedral de la Seu d'Urgell (เอกสารถวายและมอบทรัพย์สินแก่มหาวิหารลาเซอว์ดุร์เญย์) ลงวันที่ปี 839 ซึ่งแสดงหกตำบลดั้งเดิมในหุบเขาอันดอร์รา ซึ่งเป็นหน่วยการปกครองยุคต้นของประเทศ.

ในปี 988 เคานท์Borrell II แห่งอูร์เญย์ได้มอบหุบเขาอันดอร์ราให้แก่สังฆมณฑลอูร์เญย์ แลกกับที่ดินในCerdanya. นับแต่นั้นมา พระสังฆราชแห่งอูร์เญย์ ซึ่งประทับอยู่ที่เมืองเซอว์ดุร์เญย์ ได้เป็นหนึ่งในเจ้าชีวิตร่วมของอันดอร์รา.

ยุคกลาง: สนธิสัญญาปาเรอาชและการก่อตั้งเจ้าแคว้นคู่ปกครอง

โบสถ์Sant Joan de Caselles มีอายุราวคริสต์ศตวรรษที่ 11 เป็นส่วนหนึ่งของมรดกศิลปะโรมาเนสก์ของอันดอร์รา

ก่อนปี ค.ศ. 1095 อันดอร์ราไม่มีการคุ้มครองทางทหาร ขณะที่บิชอปแห่งเออร์เกลล์ ซึ่งทราบว่าเคานต์แห่งเออร์เกลล์ต้องการยึดหุบเขาอันดอร์รากลับคืน ได้ขอความช่วยเหลือและการคุ้มครองจากLord of Caboet ในปี ค.ศ. 1095 ลอร์ดแห่งคาโบเอต์และบิชอปแห่งเออร์เกลล์ได้ลงนามภายใต้คำสาบานในปฏิญญาการเป็น “ผู้ปกครองร่วม” แห่งอันดอร์รา Arnalda de Caboet ธิดาของ Arnau of Caboet ได้อภิเษกกับไวส์เคานต์แห่ง Castellbò และธิดาของทั้งคู่คือ Ermessenda de Castellbò ได้อภิเษกกับcount of Foix คือ โรเฌ-แบร์นาร์ที่ 2 ทั้งโรเฌ-แบร์นาร์ที่ 2 และเอร์เมสเซนดาได้ร่วมกันปกครองอันดอร์รากับบิชอปแห่งเออร์เกลล์

ในคริสต์ศตวรรษที่ 13 ได้เกิดข้อพิพาททางทหารระหว่างบิชอปแห่งเออร์เกลล์และเคานต์แห่งฟัวส์ ซึ่งเป็นผลสืบเนื่องจากCathar Crusade ความขัดแย้งนี้ได้รับการแก้ไขในปี ค.ศ. 1278 โดยการไกล่เกลี่ยของking of Aragon คือ ปีเตอร์ที่ 3 ผ่านการลงนามในสนธิสัญญาปาเรอาชครั้งแรก ซึ่งระบุให้มีการแบ่งอำนาจอธิปไตยเหนืออันดอร์ราระหว่างเคานต์แห่งฟัวส์ (ซึ่งต่อมาพระยศจะโอนไปยังประมุขแห่งฝรั่งเศส) และบิชอปแห่งเออร์เกลล์ในPrincipality of Catalonia สนธิสัญญานี้ได้กำหนดดินแดนและรูปแบบการเมืองการปกครองของเจ้าแคว้นอันดอร์รา

สนธิสัญญาปาเรอาชฉบับที่สองถูกลงนามในปี ค.ศ. 1288 หลังจากเคานต์แห่งฟัวส์สั่งให้สร้างปราสาทที่ Roc d’Enclar เอกสารดังกล่าวได้รับการรับรองโดยโนตารีผู้สูงศักดิ์แห่งฌาอูเม โอริก แห่งปุยก์แซร์ดา และระบุให้ห้ามการสร้างโครงสร้างทางทหารในประเทศ

ในปี ค.ศ. 1364 โครงสร้างการเมืองของประเทศได้ตั้งตำแหน่งsyndic (ปัจจุบันคือโฆษกและประธานสภา) ให้เป็นผู้แทนของชาวอันดอร์ราต่อเจ้าแคว้นคู่ นำไปสู่การก่อตั้งหน่วยปกครองท้องถิ่น (comuns, quarts, veïnats) ต่อมาเมื่อได้รับการรับรองโดยบิชอป Francesc Tovia และเคานต์ จอห์นที่ 1 ได้มีการตั้ง Consell de la Terra หรือ Consell General de les Valls (สภาสามัญแห่งหุบเขา) ในปี ค.ศ. 1419 ซึ่งเป็นรัฐสภาที่เก่าแก่เป็นอันดับสองของยุโรป ซินดิก Andreu d’Alàs และสภาสามัญได้จัดตั้งศาลยุติธรรม (La Cort de Justicia) ในปี ค.ศ. 1433 ร่วมกับเจ้าแคว้นคู่ รวมถึงการจัดเก็บภาษี foc i lloc (“ไฟและที่อยู่”) ซึ่งยังคงใช้มาจนถึงปัจจุบัน

ภาพจิตรกรรมที่อัปซีสของโบสถ์Església de Sant Miquel d'Engolasters ผลงานของ Mestre de Santa Coloma ในคริสต์ศตวรรษที่ 12

แม้ว่าจะพบซากสถาปัตยกรรมศาสนาที่เก่ากว่าคริสต์ศตวรรษที่ 9 (เช่น Sant Vicenç d’Enclar หรือEsglésia de Santa Coloma) แต่อันดอร์ราก็ได้พัฒนาศิลปะโรมาเนสก์ที่งดงามระหว่างคริสต์ศตวรรษที่ 9–14 โดยเฉพาะการสร้างโบสถ์ สะพาน จิตรกรรมฝาผนังทางศาสนา และรูปเคารพVirgin and Child (โดยเฉพาะOur Lady of Meritxell) ปัจจุบันอาคารแบบโรมาเนสก์ ที่เป็นส่วนหนึ่งของมรดกวัฒนธรรมอันดอร์รา ยังคงโดดเด่น โดยเฉพาะEsglésia de Sant Esteve, Sant Joan de Caselles, Església de Sant Miquel d'Engolasters, Sant Martí de la Cortinada และสะพานยุคกลางอย่างMargineda และEscalls อีกหลายแห่ง

เทือกเขาพิรินีฝั่งกาตาลันเป็นพื้นที่กำเนิดของCatalan language ในช่วงปลายคริสต์ศตวรรษที่ 11 อันดอร์ราถูกมีอิทธิพลจากภาษาและรับมาใช้ภายในท้องถิ่นหลายสิบปีก่อนที่ภาษานี้จะขยายตัวไปยังดินแดนอื่นในราชบัลลังก์อารากอน

เศรษฐกิจท้องถิ่นในยุคMiddle Ages ตั้งอยู่บนการเลี้ยงสัตว์ เกษตรกรรม หนังสัตว์ และการทอผ้า ต่อมาในช่วงปลายคริสต์ศตวรรษที่ 11 ได้มีเตาถลุงเหล็ก แห่งแรกปรากฏขึ้นในเขตเหนือ เช่น Ordino ซึ่งถูกยกย่องโดยช่างฝีมือผู้พัฒนาศิลปะการตีเหล็ก ซึ่งกลายเป็นกิจกรรมเศรษฐกิจสำคัญตั้งแต่คริสต์ศตวรรษที่ 15 เป็นต้นมา

ศตวรรษที่ 16 ถึง 18

Main hall of Tribunal de Corts (High Court of Justice) inside Casa de la Vall, the central Judiciary Court of Andorra

ในปี ค.ศ. 1601 Tribunal de Corts (ศาลสูงสุด) ถูกจัดตั้งขึ้น อันเป็นผลมาจาก Huguenot rebellions ใน ฝรั่งเศส การเข้ามาของศาลจาก สเปน และความเชื่อเรื่องแม่มดที่มีอยู่ในพื้นที่ ในบริบทของ Reformation และ Counter-Reformation.

เมื่อเวลาผ่านไป ตำแหน่งผู้ปกครองร่วมของอันดอร์ราได้ตกไปอยู่กับกษัตริย์แห่ง นาวาร์ หลังจากที่ เฮนรีที่สามแห่งนาวาร์ ขึ้นเป็น กษัตริย์ฝรั่งเศส พระองค์ได้ออกกฤษฎีกาในปี 1607 สถาปนาให้ประมุขของรัฐฝรั่งเศสและบิชอปแห่งเออร์เจย์ลเป็น เจ้าชายร่วม ซึ่งยังคงใช้มาจนถึงปัจจุบัน

ในปี 1617 สภาชุมชนได้จัดตั้ง “โซเมเตนต์” (กองกำลังประชาชนหรือกองทหาร) เพื่อรับมือกับการเพิ่มขึ้นของ bandolerisme (brigandage) และ Consell de la Terra ได้ถูกกำหนดโครงสร้าง บทบาท และอำนาจหน้าที่ให้ใกล้เคียงแบบปัจจุบันมากขึ้น

อันดอร์รายังคงระบบเศรษฐกิจเช่นเดียวกับช่วงศตวรรษที่ 12–14 โดยมีการผลิตโลหกรรมจำนวนมาก (fargues ระบบคล้าย Farga Catalana) พร้อมกับการเริ่มปลูกยาเส้นประมาณปี 1692 และการค้าขายสินค้าเข้า นอกจากนี้ ในปี 1371 และ 1448 เจ้าชายร่วมได้ให้สัตยาบันงานแฟร์ของเมือง Andorra la Vella ซึ่งกลายเป็นงานเทศกาลประจำชาติที่สำคัญที่สุดทางการค้าที่จัดต่อเนื่องมาจนถึงปัจจุบัน

Manor house ของตระกูล Rossell ใน Ordino, Casa Rossell, สร้างเมื่อปี 1611 ครอบครัวนี้ยังเป็นเจ้าของโรงตีเหล็กที่ใหญ่ที่สุดในอันดอร์รา เช่น Farga Rossell และ Farga del Serrat.

ประเทศมีสมาคมช่างทอผ้าที่มีทักษะเฉพาะตัวคือ Confraria de Paraires i Teixidors ใน Escaldes-Engordany ซึ่งก่อตั้งในปี 1604 และใช้ประโยชน์จากน้ำพุร้อนในพื้นที่ ช่วงเวลานี้สังคมของอันดอร์ราถูกแบ่งเป็นกลุ่ม prohoms (คนมั่งคั่ง) และ casalers (คนส่วนใหญ่ที่มีฐานะน้อยกว่า) ซึ่งสืบเนื่องจากธรรมเนียม pubilla และ hereu.

สามศตวรรษหลังจากการก่อตั้ง Consell de la Terra ได้ตั้งที่ทำการและ Tribunal de Corts ไว้ใน Casa de la Vall ในปี 1702 manor house ที่สร้างในปี 1580 เคยเป็นป้อมตระกูล Busquets ภายในรัฐสภามี "ตู้หกกุญแจ" (Armari de les sis claus) ตัวแทนจากแต่ละพาริชของอันดอร์รา ใช้เก็บ Andorran constitution และเอกสารกฎหมายต่าง ๆ

ในสงคราม Reapers' War และ War of the Spanish Succession ชาวอันดอร์รา (แม้อ้างความเป็นกลาง) ได้สนับสนุนฝ่าย Catalans ซึ่งถูกลดสิทธิผ่าน กฤษฎีกานูเอวา ปลานตา ในปี 1716 ผลที่ตามมาคือการส่งเสริมงานเขียนคาตาลันในอันดอร์รา เช่น Book of Privileges (Llibre de Privilegis de 1674), Manual Digest (1748) โดย Antoni Fiter i Rossell และ Polità andorrà (1763) โดย Antoni Puig.

19th century: the New Reform and the Andorran Question

Guillem d'Areny-Plandolit led the New Reform of 1866.

หลังจากFrench Revolution แล้ว Napoleon I ได้สถาปนา Co-Principate ขึ้นใหม่ในปี 1809 และยกเลิกตำแหน่งศักดินาฝรั่งเศสในยุคกลาง ในช่วงปี 1812–1813 First French Empire ได้ผนวกแคว้นกาตาลุญญาในระหว่างPeninsular War (Guerra Peninsular) และแบ่งภูมิภาคออกเป็นสี่département โดยมีอันดอร์รารวมอยู่ในเขตPuigcerdà ด้วย ต่อมาในปี 1814 มีพระราชกฤษฎีกาจากจักรวรรดิ ฟื้นฟูเอกราชและเศรษฐกิจของอันดอร์ราอีกครั้ง

ในช่วงเวลานี้ สถาบันทางการเมืองยุคกลางตอนปลายและวัฒนธรรมชนบทของอันดอร์รายังคงเหมือนเดิมเป็นส่วนใหญ่ ในปี 1866 syndic Guillem d'Areny-Plandolit ได้นำกลุ่มปฏิรูปเข้าสู่สภาใหญ่ (Council General) จำนวน 24 สมาชิก ซึ่งมาจากการเลือกตั้งจำกัดสิทธิให้เฉพาะหัวหน้าครอบครัว สภาใหญ่ได้เข้ามาแทนที่ระบบขุนนางซึ่งเคยปกครองรัฐก่อนหน้านี้

การปฏิรูปครั้งใหม่ (Nova Reforma) เริ่มต้นขึ้นหลังจากที่ได้รับการให้สัตยาบันโดยทั้งสองโค-พรินซ์ และวางรากฐานของรัฐธรรมนูญ และสัญลักษณ์ประจำชาติ – เช่นธงสามสีของอันดอร์รา ในเวลานี้ได้มีการเกิดขึ้นของเศรษฐกิจบริการ ตามความต้องการของประชาชนในหุบเขา และเริ่มมีการสร้างโครงสร้างพื้นฐาน เช่น โรงแรม สปารีสอร์ต ถนน และสายโทรเลข

Canillo scenery during the Revolution of 1881

ทางการของโค-พรินซ์ ได้สั่งห้ามคาสิโนและสถานพนันทั่วประเทศ ส่งผลให้เกิดความขัดแย้งทางเศรษฐกิจและนำไปสู่ Revolution of 1881 การปฏิวัติเริ่มต้นขึ้นเมื่อผู้ก่อการบุกโจมตีบ้านของ syndic ในวันที่ 8 ธันวาคม 1880 และจัดตั้งสภาปฏิวัติชั่วคราว (Provisional Revolutionary Council) นำโดย Joan Pla i Calvo และ Pere Baró i Mas สภาปฏิวัติชั่วคราวอนุญาตให้บริษัทยุโรปเข้ามาสร้างคาสิโนและสปาในอันดอร์รา

ระหว่างวันที่ 7–9 มิถุนายน 1881 ฝ่ายภักดีจากCanillo และEncamp ได้ตีคืนOrdino และLa Massana โดยเข้าติดต่อกับกองกำลังปฏิวัติที่Escaldes-Engordany หลังจากสู้รบหนึ่งวัน ก็ได้มีการลงนามในสนธิสัญญาสะพานเอสคัลส์ เมื่อวันที่ 10 มิถุนายน สภาถูกแทนที่และมีการจัดการเลือกตั้งใหม่ สถานการณ์เศรษฐกิจกลับเลวร้ายลง ขณะที่ประชาชนแบ่งฝักฝ่ายกันใน Qüestió d'Andorra — “ปัญหาอันดอร์รา” ซึ่งเชื่อมโยงกับ Eastern Question ความขัดแย้งดำเนินต่อไประหว่างกลุ่มสนับสนุนสังฆราช กลุ่มสนับสนุนฝรั่งเศส และกลุ่มชาตินิยม โดยมีเหตุการณ์ปะทุขึ้นในCanillo ในปี 1882 และ 1885

อันดอร์ราเข้าร่วมในขบวนการฟื้นฟูวัฒนธรรมคาตาลัน หรือ Renaixença ระหว่างปี 1882–1887 มีการจัดตั้งโรงเรียนเชิงวิชาการแห่งแรกขึ้น ซึ่งภายในมีการใช้สามภาษา ควบคู่ไปกับภาษาราชการคือคาตาลัน นักประพันธ์แนวโรแมนติกจากฝรั่งเศส และสเปน ได้กล่าวถึงการตื่นตัวของสำนึกชาติในอันดอร์รา Jacint Verdaguer อาศัยอยู่ในOrdino ในทศวรรษ 1880 ซึ่งเขาได้เขียนและแลกเปลี่ยนผลงานในกลุ่ม Renaixença กับนักเขียน–ช่างภาพ Joaquim de Riba

ในปี 1848 Fromental Halévy ได้เปิดแสดงออเปรา Le val d'Andorre ซึ่งได้รับความสำเร็จอย่างมากในยุโรป โดยนำเสนอความสำนึกชาติต่อหุบเขาอันดอร์ราในบริบทของ Peninsular War

20th and 21st century: Modernisation of the country and constitutional Andorra

Boris Skossyreff, briefly self-proclaimed King of Andorra in 1934

In 1933 France occupied Andorra following social unrest which occurred before elections due to the Revolution of 1933 and the FHASA strikes (Vagues de FHASA); the revolt led by Joves Andorrans (a labour union group related to the Spanish CNT and FAI) called for political reforms, the universal suffrage vote of all Andorrans and acted in defence of the rights of local and foreign workers during the construction of FHASA's hydroelectric power station in Encamp. On 5 April 1933 Joves Andorrans seized the Andorran Parliament. These actions were preceded by the arrival of Colonel René-Jules Baulard with 50 gendarmes and the mobilisation of 200 local militias or sometent led by the Síndic Francesc Cairat.

On 6 July 1934, adventurer and nobleman Boris Skossyreff, with his promise of freedoms and modernisation of the country and wealth through the establishment of a tax haven and foreign investments, received the support of the members of the General Council to proclaim himself the sovereign of Andorra. On 8 July 1934 Boris issued a proclamation in Urgell, declaring himself Boris I, King of Andorra, simultaneously declaring war on the Bishop of Urgell and approving the King's constitution on 10 July. He was arrested by the Co-Prince and Bishop Justí Guitart i Vilardebó and their authorities on 20 July and ultimately expelled from Spain. From 1936 until 1940, a French military detachment of Garde Mobile led by well-known Colonel René-Jules Baulard was garrisoned in Andorra to secure the principality against disruption from the Spanish Civil War and Francoist Spain and also face the rise of Republicanism in the aftermath of the 1933 Revolution. During the Spanish Civil War, the inhabitants of Andorra welcomed refugees from both sides, and many of them settled permanently in the country thus contributing to the subsequent economic boom and the entry into the capitalist era of Andorra. Francoist troops reached the Andorran border in the later stages of the war.

Enthronement as Co-Prince in 1942 of Bishop Ramón Iglesias (centre). The local comite was led by Francesc Cairat (left), the First General Syndic with the longest regencie, from 1936 to 1960.

During World War II, Andorra remained neutral and was an important smuggling route between Vichy France and Francoist Spain. Many Andorrans criticised the passivity of the General Council for impeding both the entry and expulsion of foreigners and refugees, committing economic crimes, reducing the rights of citizens and sympathy with Francoism. General Council members justified the council's political and diplomatic actions as necessary for Andorra's survival and the protection of its sovereignty. Andorra was relatively unscathed by the two world wars and the Spanish Civil War. Certain groups formed to help victims of oppression in Nazi-occupied countries, while participating in smuggling to help Andorra survive. Among the most prominent was the Hostal Palanques Evasion Network Command, which, in contact with the British MI6, helped almost 400 fugitives, among whom were Allied military personnel. The Command remained active between 1941 and 1944, although there were struggles with pro-Axis informers and Gestapo agents in Andorra.

Co-Prince Charles de Gaulle in the streets of Sant Julià de Lòria in Andorra, October 1967

In the capital city there was a smuggling black market of propaganda, culture and cinematic art not favourable to totalitarian regimes, promulgated in such places as the Hotel Mirador or the Casino Hotel, as a meeting place for Free French forces and a route for escorting downed Allied pilots out of Europe. The network was maintained after the war, when film societies were formed, where movies, music and books censored in Franco's Spain were imported, becoming an anti-censorship attraction for the Catalan or foreign public even within Andorra. The Andorran Group (Agrupament Andorrà), an anti-fascist organisation linked to the Occitanie's French Resistance, accused the French representative (veguer) of collaboration with Nazism.

The Andorran opening to the capitalist economy resulted in two axes: mass tourism and the country's tax exemption. The first steps towards the capitalist boom date from the 1930s, with the construction of FHASA and the creation of professional banking with Banc Agrícol (1930) and Crèdit Andorrà (1949), later with Banca Mora (1952), Banca Cassany (1957) and SOBANCA (1960). Shortly after, activities such as skiing and shopping helped the country become a tourist attraction, with the inauguration of ski resorts and cultural entities in the late 1930s. A revived hotel industry also developed. In April 1968 a social health insurance system was created (CASS).

Streets of the city centre of Andorra la Vella in 1986. From 1986 until 1989 Andorra normalised the economic treaties with the EEC.

Foreign Minister of Andorra Gilbert Saboya meeting Austrian foreign minister Sebastian Kurz at the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe in 2014

The Andorran government necessarily involved planning, projection and forecasts for the future: with the official visit of the French co-prince Charles de Gaulle in 1967 and 1969; it was given approval for the economic boom and national demands within the framework of human rights and international openness.

Andorra experienced an era commonly known as the "Andorran dream" (similar to the American Dream) along with the Trente Glorieuses: mass culture rooted itself in the country experiencing radical changes in the economy and culture. Proof of this was Ràdio Andorra, the top musical radio station in Europe in this period, with guests and speakers of great importance promoting musical hits from chanson française, swing, rhythm & blues, jazz, rock and roll and American country music. During this period Andorra achieved a GDP per capita and a life expectancy higher than most standard countries of the time.

Given its relative isolation, Andorra has existed outside the mainstream of European history, with few ties to countries other than France, Spain and Portugal. But in recent times its thriving tourist industry, along with developments in transport and communications, have removed the country from its isolation. Since 1976 the country has seen the need to reform Andorran institutions due to anachronisms in sovereignty, human rights and the balance of powers as well as the need to adapt legislation to modern demands. In 1982 a first separation of powers took place when instituting the Govern d'Andorra, under the name of the executive board (Consell Executiu), chaired by the first prime minister Òscar Ribas Reig with the co-princes' approval. In 1989 the Principality signed an agreement with the European Economic Community to regularise trade relations.

Its political system was modernised in 1993 after the Andorran constitutional referendum, when the constitution was drafted by the co-princes and the General Council and approved on 14 March by 74.2% of voters, with a 76% turnout. The first elections under the new constitution were held later in the year. The same year, Andorra became a member of the United Nations and the Council of Europe.

Andorra formalised diplomatic relations with the United States in 1996, participating in the 51st UN General Assembly. First General Syndic Marc Forné took part in a speech in Catalan in the General Assembly to defend the reform of the organisation, and after three days he took part in the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe to defend Andorra's linguistic rights and economy. In 2006 a monetary agreement with the European Union was formalised that allows Andorra to use the euro officially, as well as minting its own euro coins.

en:Monarchy of the Netherlands/พระมหากษัตริย์เนเธอร์แลนด์

พระมหากษัตริย์เนเธอร์แลนด์ อยู่ภายใต้การกำกับโดยกฎบัตรและรัฐธรรมนูญของประเทศ ซึ่งมีเนื้อหาประมาณหนึ่งในสามอธิบายถึงกลไกของการสืบราชสันตติวงศ์ การขึ้นครองราชย์ และการสละราชสมบัติ รวมถึงบทบาทและหน้าที่ของพระมหากษัตริย์ ระเบียบพิธีในการติดต่อสื่อสารกับรัฐสภา และบทบาทของพระมหากษัตริย์ในการตรากฎหมาย พระมหากษัตริย์ทรงเป็นประมุขแห่งรัฐและหัวหน้ารัฐบาลโดยนิตินัยของประเทศเนเธอร์แลนด์

บรรดามณฑลที่เคยเป็นรัฐเอกราชของเนเธอร์แลนด์ของสเปน เคยอยู่ภายใต้การปกครองเป็นระยะโดยสมาชิกของราชวงศ์ออเรนจ์-นัสเซา ตั้งแต่ปี 1559 เมื่อ พระเจ้าเฟลิเปที่ 2 แห่งสเปน ทรงแต่งตั้งวิลเลิมผู้เงียบขรึม (วิลเลิมแห่งออเรนจ์) ให้ดำรงตำแหน่งสตัดเฮาเดอร์ จนถึงปี 1795 เมื่อสตัดเฮาเดอร์องค์สุดท้ายคือ วิลเลิมที่ 5 เจ้าชายแห่งออเรนจ์ เสด็จลี้ภัยออกนอกประเทศ วิลเลิมผู้เงียบขรึมได้กลายเป็นผู้นำของสงครามแปดสิบปีและเป็นผู้นำสาธารณรัฐดัตช์ที่เป็นเอกราช ต่อมาลูกหลานบางพระองค์ของพระองค์ได้รับการแต่งตั้งเป็นสตัดเฮาเดอร์โดยมณฑลต่าง ๆ และในปี 1747 ตำแหน่งสตัดเฮาเดอร์ได้กลายเป็นตำแหน่งสืบตระกูลในทุกมณฑลของสาธารณรัฐดัตช์ซึ่งถูกเรียกว่า “มกุฎสาธารณรัฐ”

ราชอาณาจักรเนเธอร์แลนด์เป็นระบอบราชาธิปไตยสืบราชสันตติวงศ์มาตั้งแต่วันที่ 20 พฤศจิกายน ค.ศ. 1813 เมื่อมีการสถาปนาประเทศขึ้นเป็นนครรัฐภายหลังได้รับเอกราชจากจักรวรรดินโปเลียนของฝรั่งเศส ต่อมาได้ยกฐานะขึ้นเป็นราชอาณาจักรเมื่อวันที่ 16 มีนาคม ค.ศ. 1815 ภายหลังการสละราชสมบัติของสมเด็จพระราชินีนาถเบียทริกซ์ สมเด็จพระราชาธิบดีวิลเลิม-อเล็กซานเดอร์จึงขึ้นครองราชย์เป็นพระมหากษัตริย์รัชกาลปัจจุบัน ตั้งแต่วันที่ 30 เมษายน ค.ศ. 2013

Succession

The monarchy of the Netherlands passes by right of succession to the heirs of William I (see House of Orange-Nassau). The heir is determined through two mechanisms: absolute cognatic primogeniture and proximity of blood. The Netherlands established absolute cognatic primogeniture instead of male-preference primogeniture by law in 1983. Proximity of blood limits accession to the throne to a person who is related to the current monarch within three degrees of kinship. For example, the grandchildren of Princess Margriet of the Netherlands (sister of Princess Beatrix) have no succession rights because their kinship with Beatrix when she was queen, was of the fourth degree (that is, Princess Beatrix is their parent's parent's parents' daughter). Succession is limited to legitimate heirs, precluding a claim to the throne by children born out of wedlock. If the king dies while his wife is pregnant: the unborn child is considered the heir at that point, unless stillborn – the child is then considered never to have existed. As such, if the preceding king dies while his wife is pregnant with their first child, the unborn child is immediately considered born and immediately becomes the new king or queen. If the pregnancy ends in stillbirth, his or her reign is expunged (otherwise the existence of the stillborn king/queen would add a degree of separation for other family members to the throne and might suddenly exclude the next person in line for the throne).

If the monarch is a minor, a regent is appointed and serves until the monarch comes of age. The regent is customarily the surviving parent of the monarch but the constitution stipulates that custody and parental authority of the minor monarch will be determined by law; any person might be appointed as regent, as legal guardian or both.

There are also a number of special cases within the Constitution. First, if there is no heir when the monarch dies, the States-General may appoint a successor upon the suggestion of the government. This suggestion may be made before the death of the reigning monarch, even by the monarch himself (in case it is clear that the monarch will die without leaving an heir). Second, some people are excluded from the line of succession. They are:

• Any heir who marries without the permission of the States-General loses the right of succession.
• A person who is or has become truly undesirable or unfit as monarch can be removed from the line of succession by an act of the States-General, upon suggestion of the reigning monarch. This clause has never been executed and is considered an "emergency exit". An example would be an heir apparent who commits treason or suffers an incapacitating accident.

Accession

แม่แบบ:Dutch Royal Family As with most monarchies, the Netherlands cannot be without a monarch – the constitution of the Netherlands does not recognise a situation in which there is no monarch. This is because there must be a head of state in order for the government to function, as there must be someone who carries out the tasks of the constitutional role of the King/Queen. For this reason, the new monarch assumes the role the moment the previous monarch ceases to hold the throne. The only exception is if there is no heir at all, in which case the Council of State assumes the role of the monarch pending the appointment of a monarch or regent.

The monarch is expected to execute his duties and responsibilities for the good of the nation. The monarch must therefore swear to uphold the constitution and execute the office faithfully. The monarch must be sworn in as soon as possible after assuming the throne during a joint session of the States-General held in Amsterdam. Article 32 of the Dutch constitution describes a swearing-in in "the capital Amsterdam", which incidentally is the only phrase in the constitution that names Amsterdam as the capital of the Kingdom. The ceremony is called the inauguration (inhuldiging).

The Dutch monarch is not crowned—although the crown, orb, and sceptre are present at the ceremony—the monarch's swearing of the oath constitutes acceptance of the throne. Also, note that this ceremony does not equal accession to the throne as this would imply a vacancy of the throne between monarchs which is not allowed. The monarch ascends immediately after the previous monarch ceases to reign. The swearing-in only constitutes acceptance in public.

End of a reign

The monarch's reign can end in death or abdication. Both of these events cause the regular mechanisms of succession to go into effect. While the constitution mentions neither possibility explicitly, it does describe what happens after the monarch dies or abdicates. Abdication is a prerogative of the monarch, but it is also irreversible as the person abdicating cannot return to the throne, nor can a child born to a former monarch after an abdication has occurred have a claim to the throne.

The abdicated monarch is legally a Prince or Princess of the Netherlands as well as a Prince or Princess of Orange-Nassau. After their death, legally the deceased monarch (abdicated or not) has no titles. However, after death, the abdicated monarch is traditionally referred to as king or queen again. For example, Queen Juliana became queen on 4 September 1948 and princess again on 30 April 1980 following her abdication, but has been referred to as Queen Juliana since her death on 20 March 2004.

Temporary loss of royal authority

There are two ways in which the monarch, without ceasing to be monarch, can be stripped of his or her royal authority:

Voluntary suspension of royal authority

The monarch temporarily ceases execution of his or her office.

Removal from royal authority

The government strips the monarch of his or her royal authority, as he or she is deemed unfit for their tasks.

These cases are both temporary (even if the monarch dies while not executing his office it still counts as temporary) and are described in detail in the constitution. A monarch can temporarily cease to reign for any reason. This can be at his own request or because the Council of Ministers deems the monarch unfit for office. Although there can be any reason for the monarch to cede royal authority or be removed from it, both monarch and council are deemed to act responsibly and not leave the execution of the office vacant unnecessarily. Both cases are intended to deal with emergency situations such as physical or mental inability to execute the office of the monarch.

In both cases, an act of the joint States-General is needed to strip the monarch of authority. In the case of the monarch ceding royal authority, the required act is a law. In case of removal, it is a declaration by the States-General. Formally, both require the normal procedure for passing a new law in the Netherlands. The former case is signed into law by the monarch himself, the latter is not, so technically it is not a law (this is allowed explicitly in the Constitution since the monarch who is being stripped of his authority will probably not agree to sign the act of his removal, and—in the case of the States-General removing a monarch who has become unfit due to mental or physical incapacitation—may not be able to).

Since neither ceding nor removal is permanent, neither triggers succession. Instead, the States-General appoint a regent. This must be the heir apparent if he or she is old enough. In order for the monarch to resume his duties, a law (which is signed by the regent) must be passed to that effect. The monarch resumes the throne the moment the law of his return is made public.

The monarch and the government

Although the monarch has roles and duties in all parts of the government and in several important places in the rest of society, the primary role of the monarch is within the executive branch of the Dutch government: the monarch is part of the government of the Netherlands.

The role of the monarch within the government of the Netherlands is described in Article 42 of the constitution:

1. De regering wordt gevormd door de Koning en de ministers.
2. De Koning is onschendbaar; de ministers zijn verantwoordelijk.

1. The government consists of the King and the ministers.
2. The King is inviolable; the ministers are responsible.

This article is the basis of the full power and influence of the monarch and makes him beyond reproach before the law, but also limits his practical power, as he can take no responsibility for it.

The first paragraph of Article 42 determines that the government of the Netherlands consists of the monarch and his ministers. The monarch is according to this article not the head of government; the ministers are not answerable to the monarch within the government. There is no distinction, no dichotomy, no segregation or separation: the monarch and his ministers are the government and the government is one.

This fact has practical consequences, in that it is not possible for the monarch and the ministers to be in disagreement. The government speaks with one voice and makes decisions as a united body. When the monarch acts in an executive capacity, he does so as a representative of the united government. And when the government decides, the monarch is in agreement (even if the monarch personally disagrees). As an ultimate consequence of this, it is not possible for the monarch to refuse to sign into law a proposal of law that has been agreed to and signed by the responsible minister. Such a disagreement between the monarch and his minister is a situation not covered by the constitution and is automatically a constitutional crisis.

The second paragraph of the article states that the monarch is inviolable. He is beyond any reproach, beyond the grasp of any prosecution (criminal or otherwise) for any acts committed or actions taken as monarch. If anything goes wrong, the minister responsible for the topic at hand is responsible for the failings of the monarch. This sounds like it makes the monarch an absolute tyrant, but in fact, the opposite is true. Actual decision-making lies with the ministers. The ministers set the course of the government and the country, and the ministers make executive decisions and run the affairs of the state. Since the government is one, the monarch abides by the decision of the ministers. In fact, in modern practice this paragraph effectively leaves the monarch without any actual political power. Dutch monarchs rarely make any executive decisions at all and practically never speak in public on any subject other than to read a statement prepared by the Prime Minister (since an unfortunate off-the-cuff remark could get a minister into trouble). The practical consequence of this limit on the power of the monarch is that the monarch never makes a decision on his own. Every decision and decree must be countersigned by the responsible minister(s), who then assumes political responsibility for the act.

The monarch and the law of the land

Technically, the monarch holds significant formal power. For instance, no proposal of law becomes effective until it is signed by the monarch – while there is no legal requirement for the monarch to sign. In practice, the monarch always gives assent since most proposals of law are put forward by the government "by or on behalf of the King". Similarly, while proposals of law must be approved by the States-General, a lot of the practical running of the country is done by royal decree (in Dutch: Koninklijk Besluit). These royal decrees are used for all sorts of things, ranging from appointments of civil servants and military officers to clarifications of how public policy is to be executed to filling in the details of certain laws. Through royal decrees, ministries are created, the houses of the States-General can be dissolved, and ministers are appointed or dismissed.

However, royal decrees are made by the responsible minister. Although the monarch must formally sign both laws and decrees before they take effect, the constitution requires that the responsible minister or state secretary countersigns them. This arrangement ensures that, despite the monarch’s formal role, political accountability remains with the minister. In practice, the minister requests the monarch’s formal approval—signifying royal authority—and the monarch signs first as a guardian of the constitution, with the minister’s countersignature confirming responsibility on behalf of the Crown. While the monarch can technically propose laws "by or on behalf of the King," ministerial responsibility means that such proposals never actually originate from the monarch. Similarly, even though the government might theoretically refuse to sign a proposal approved by the States-General, such an event is extremely rare; the notion of the monarch independently withholding a signature would almost certainly trigger a constitutional crisis.

There is one special case in which the monarch has, if possible, even less power than normal: the appointment of his ministers. Ministers are appointed by royal decree, which has to be countersigned by the responsible minister. The royal decree to appoint a minister, however, is countersigned by two responsible ministers rather than one: the outgoing minister responsible for the ministry and the Prime Minister.

Formation of the government

Though the powers of the monarch of the Netherlands are limited, he or she does not have a ceremonial role. The monarch has a role relating to the formation of a new government after parliamentary elections. This power is not directed in the constitution.

After the parliamentary election, there follows a period of time in which the leaders of the political parties in parliament seek to form a coalition of parties that can command a majority of the newly elected parliament. The current nationwide party-list system, combined with a low threshold for getting a seat (two-thirds of one percent of the vote), makes it all but impossible for one party to win an outright majority. Thus, the bargaining required to put together a governing coalition is as important as the election itself.

This process of negotiations, which can last anywhere from two to four months (more on occasion), is coordinated in the initial stages by one or more informateurs, whose duty it is to investigate and report upon viable coalitions. After a likely combination is found, a formateur is appointed to conduct the formal coalition negotiations and form a new Council of Ministers (of which the formateur himself usually becomes the Prime Minister). If the negotiations fail, the cycle starts over. The informateurs and formateur in question are all appointed to this task by the monarch. The monarch makes his own decision in this, based on advice from the leaders of the different parties in parliament, as well as other important figures (the speakers of the new parliament and the senate are among them).

There is usually some popular discussion in the Netherlands around the time of these negotiations about whether the authority of the monarch in this matter should not be limited and whether or not the newly elected parliament should not make the appointments that the monarch makes. These discussions usually turn (to varying degrees) on the argument that a decision by a monarch is undemocratic and there is no parliamentary oversight over the decision and the monarch might make use of this to push for a government of his or her liking.

On the other hand, it is somewhat questionable that the monarch really has much opportunity here to exert any influence. The informateur is there to investigate possible coalitions and report on them. He could technically seek "favourable" coalitions, but the political parties involved are usually quite clear on what they want and do not want and the first choice for coalition almost always is the coalition of preference of the largest party in the new parliament. Besides, the monarchs and (particularly) the queens have traditionally known better than to appoint controversial informateurs, usually settling for well-established yet fairly neutral people in the political arena (the deputy chairman of the Dutch Council of State is a common choice). Once a potential coalition has been identified the monarch technically has free rein in selecting a formateur. However, the formateur almost always becomes the next prime minister, and in any case, it is a strong convention that a government must command the support of a majority of the House of Representatives in order to stay in office. These considerations mean that the selected formateur is always the party leader of the largest party in the potential coalition.

However, in March 2012 the States-General altered its own procedures, such that any subsequent government formation is done without the monarch's influence. No more than a month later, the government coalition collapsed, triggering early elections in September 2012. As no formal procedures had been outlined as to how a government formation without monarch should take place, it was initially feared the subsequent government formation would be chaotic. However, a new government coalition was formed within 54 days – surprisingly early for Dutch standards. Instead of the monarch, the Speaker of the House of Representatives appointed the informateur – whose function was renamed to 'scout'. After the negotiations, the installation ceremony of ministers – the only duty still left to the monarch – was held in public for the first time in history.

The monarch and the States-General

The Dutch Court is still known for their old traditions.

The throne of the Ridderzaal, from which the Dutch monarch delivers the Throne Speech on Prinsjesdag.

The one branch of government over which the monarch has no control is the legislative branch, formed by the States-General of the Netherlands. This parliamentary body consists of two chambers, the House of Representatives (also commonly referred to as Parliament) and the Senate.

As in most parliamentary democracies, the States-General are dually responsible for overseeing the government in its executive duties as well as approving proposals of law before they can become as such. In this respect, it is vital for the government to maintain good relations with the States-General and technically the monarch shares in that effort (although the monarch never officially speaks to members of the States-General on policy matters due to ministerial responsibility).

Constitutionally, the monarch deals with the States-General in three areas: lawmaking, policy outlining at the opening of the parliamentary year and dissolution.

Of the three, policy outlining is the most straightforward. The parliamentary year is opened on the third Tuesday of September with a joint session of both houses. At this occasion the monarch addresses the joint states in a speech in which he sets forth the outlines for his government's policies for the coming year (the speech itself is prepared by the ministers, their ministries and finally crafted and approved by the prime minister). This event is mandated by the constitution in Article 65. Tradition has made more of this occasion than a policy speech though, and the event known as Prinsjesdag has become a large affair with much pomp and circumstance, in which the States-General and other major bodies of government assemble in the Ridderzaal to hear the King deliver the speech from the throne after having arrived from the Noordeinde Palace in his golden carriage. Both in constitutional aspects and in ceremony the event has much in common with both the British State Opening of Parliament and the American State of the Union.

Lawmaking is the area in which the monarch has the most frequent involvement with the States-General (although he still has very little to do with it in practice). Laws in the Netherlands are primarily proposed by the government "by or on behalf of" the monarch (this phrase is repeated often in the constitution). Technically, this means that the monarch may propose laws in person, hearkening back to the days of the first monarchs of the Netherlands when monarchs really could and did control this. However, this possibility is at odds with ministerial responsibility and modern monarchs have always avoided the issue by never proposing laws personally. The monarch must still sign proposals into law though, as historical deference to the fact that the law of the land is decreed by the monarch.

While the king has no practical involvement anymore in lawmaking other than a signature at the end, one might get a different impression from reading the communications between the government and the States-General regarding such affairs. All communication from the States-General to the government is addressed to the monarch and correspondence in the opposite direction formally from the monarch (it is also signed by the monarch, without a ministerial countersignature – such communication is not a decision or decree, so does not require a countersignature). The formal language still shows deference to the position of the monarch, with a refusal of the States-General to approve a proposal of law for example becoming "a request to the King to reconsider the proposal". The constitution prescribes a number of the forms used:

• If the government accepts a proposal of law and signs it into law, the language is that "The King accedes to the proposal".
• If the government refuses a proposal of law, the language is that "The King shall keep the proposal under advisement".

A law, once passed, is formulated in such a way as to be decreed by the monarch.

The final involvement of the monarch with the States is dissolution. Constitutionally, the government is empowered to dissolve either house of the states by royal decree. This means that a minister (usually the prime minister) makes the decision and the monarch countersigns. The signing of such a royal decree constitutionally implies new elections for the house in question and the formation of a new house within three months of dissolution.

The constitution prescribes a number of cases in which one or more houses of the States are dissolved (particularly for changes to the constitution); this is always done by royal decree. In addition, traditionally a collapse of the government is followed by dissolution of the House of Representatives and general elections. Before World War II, before it became common to form new governments with each new parliament, it would happen from time to time that a Council of Ministers found itself suddenly facing a new and unfriendly parliament. When the inevitable clash came, it was an established political trick for the Prime Minister to attempt to resolve the problem by dissolving the parliament in name of the monarch in the hope that new elections brought a more favourable parliament (but it was also possible for the trick to backfire, in which case the new, equally hostile and far more angry parliament would suspend the budget to force the resignation of the government).

Even though the monarch never speaks with members of the States-General formally, it was tradition until 1999 that the queen would invite the members of parliament a few times a year for informal talks about the general state of affairs in the country. These conversations were held in the strictest confidence due to ministerial responsibility. The tradition was suspended in 1999 though, after repeated incidents in which MPs divulged the contents of the conversations, despite agreeing not to (and embarrassing the Prime Minister in doing so). In 2009, an attempt was made to resume the tradition, this failed however when Arend Jan Boekestijn disclosed to the press contents of a private conversation he had with the Queen. Boekestinjin resigned shortly after being exposed as the source.

Other functions of the monarch

The monarch has several functions in addition to the duties and responsibilities described in previous sections. Some of these are (partly) constitutional; others are more traditional in nature.

The monarch is the head of state of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. As such, the monarch is the face of the kingdom toward the world: ambassadors of the Netherlands are emissaries of the monarch, foreign ambassadors represent foreign heads of state to the monarch. It is the monarch that makes official state visits to foreign heads of state as representative of the Netherlands. He or She represents the monarch whose face is shown on Dutch stamps and Dutch euro coins.

Constitutionally, the monarch is the head of the Dutch Council of State. The council is a constitutional body of the Netherlands that serves two purposes. First, it is an advisory council to the government which advises on the desirability, practicability and constitutionality of new proposals of law.

Second, it is the Supreme court for the Netherlands in matters of administrative law. The position of the monarch as constitutional head of this Council means two things for the constitutional position of the monarch:

1. The monarch is constitutionally and directly involved with practically all aspects of lawmaking except approval by the States-General (which is representative of the electorate). From inception of the law through proposal to the States to finally signing into law, the monarch is involved. This involvement is derived from the days when the monarch was an absolute ruler and really made law. Originally, with the creation of the first constitutions, the monarchs strove to maintain power by maximum involvement with all aspects of lawmaking. Over time this has grown into a more advisory role.
2. The monarch is constitutionally involved with at least part of the judicial branch of government as well.

The role played by the monarch in the council is largely theoretical due to ministerial responsibility. While the monarch is officially chairman of the council, in practice the king never votes in Council meetings and always turns over his responsibility as chair of the meetings to the deputy head of the council. He is still presumed to be part of the discussions, though.

Despite the limitations on the role the monarch may play in the council, his involvement is seen as valuable due to the experience and knowledge that a monarch accrues over the years. Reciprocally, being part of the Council deliberations is considered invaluable training and preparation for the role of monarch, which is why the heir-apparent is constitutionally an observer-member of the council from the time he comes of age.

The monarch is also the Grand Master of the Dutch orders of knighthoods: the Order of Orange-Nassau, the Order of the Netherlands Lion and the Military William Order.

Lastly, the monarch plays a prominent but equally unofficial role in the running of the country as an adviser and confidant to the government. This duty traditionally takes the form of a weekly meeting between the Prime Minister and the monarch in which they discuss government affairs of the week, the plans of the cabinet, and so on. It is assumed that the monarch exerts most of his influence (such as it is) in these meetings, in that he can bring his knowledge and experience to bear on what he tells the Prime Minister. In the case of Queen Beatrix, several former Prime Ministers have remarked that her case knowledge of each and every dossier is extensive and that she makes sure to be fully aware of all the details surrounding everything that arrives on her desk.

Perhaps somewhat surprisingly for a monarchy, the monarch is not the commander-in-chief of the military of the Netherlands (not even nominally). He was until 1983, but a large overhaul of the constitution that year shifted supreme command of the armed forces to the government as a whole. In contrast to most monarchies, this required Willem-Alexander to resign from his (brigadier general level) ranks in all military branches when he ascended the throne. At that occasion the special Royal distinctive was created that the king could wear on his uniforms to show his lasting relation with the armed forces. This is however no formal rank.

Remuneration and privileges

Stipend

Article 40 of the constitution states that the monarch is to receive an annual stipend from the kingdom (in other words wages, except that it cannot be called that since it implies the monarch is employed by the government, but rather it is the opposite). The exact rules surrounding these stipends are to be determined by law, as is the list of members of the royal house who also receive them.

Under current Dutch law the monarch receives their annual stipend which is part of the annual budget, as do the heir-apparent (if of age), the spouse of the monarch, the spouse of the heir-apparent, the former monarch, and the spouse of the former monarch. In practice, as of June 2019, this means King Willem-Alexander, Queen Maxima, and Princess Beatrix. The monarch receives this stipend constitutionally, the others because they are not allowed to work for anybody due to their positions. For example, the recipients of royal stipends in 2009 were Queen Beatrix (€813,000), Prince Willem-Alexander (the heir-apparent; €241,000) and Princess Máxima (€241,000)). For 2017 the stipends were; for the King €888,000, for the Queen €352,000, and for Princess Beatrix €502,000. These personal stipends are in addition to an allowance for each of those named to meet official expenditure, these were set at €4.6 million for the King, €606,000 for the Queen and just over €1 million for Princess Beatrix.

This stipend is linked to the development of the wages of Dutch civil servants. At the beginning of 2009 there was some upset in the parliament about the cost of the royal house and the lack of insight into the structure of those costs. At the insistence of the parliament the development of the stipends of the royal house members was then linked to the development of the salaries of the Dutch civil servants. During 2009 it was agreed collectively that the civil servants would receive a pay increase of 1%. In September 2009, at the first budget debate in parliament during the economic crisis, it was pointed out to the parliament that their earlier decision meant that the stipend to the queen would now also increase. This in turn was reason for the parliament to be displeased again.

Royal privileges

The Dutch monarchy's royal train in 2017

Taxation

Under the constitution, royal house members receiving a stipend are exempt from income tax over that stipend. They are also exempt from all personal taxes over assets and possessions that they use or need in the execution of their functions for the kingdom. The monarch and the heir-apparent are exempt from inheritance tax on inheritances received from members of the royal house.

Palaces

The monarch has the use of Huis ten Bosch and Noordeinde Palace in The Hague as a residence and work palace, respectively. The Royal Palace of Amsterdam is also at the disposal of the monarch (although it is only used for state visits and is open to the public when not in use for that purpose).

Transportation

In addition to a small fleet of cars (on which the Royal Standard may be displayed), the monarch has a private three-car royal train. For train journeys, the monarch has access to royal waiting rooms at three train stations: Den Haag HS railway station, Amsterdam Centraal station, and Baarn railway station. The monarch also has access to a Boeing 737 Business Jet available to the Dutch government as a whole, which King Willem-Alexander is licensed to fly.

Lèse-majesté

Historically the Dutch monarch was protected by law against lèse-majesté. The Netherlands was amongst the last remaining monarchies in Europe to actively prosecute citizens for publicly insulting the reigning sovereign or members of their immediate family, although the sentences tend to be light. According to Dutch TV, in total 18 prosecutions were brought under the law between 2000 and 2012, half of which resulted in convictions. Lèse-majesty in the Netherlands was formally abolished as of 1 January 2020. However, insulting the Monarch, the Royal Consort, the heir apparent or their consort, or the Regent, is still punishable on the same level as denigrating public officials acting in their official capacity, punishable by up to three months in prison and/or a fine.

Positions of other members of the royal house and royal family

The royal family has become quite extensive since the birth of Queen Juliana's children. By consequence so has the Dutch royal house (nominally the collection of persons in line for the throne and their spouses), to the extent that membership of the royal house was limited by a change in the law in 2002.

Despite being a large clan, the family as a whole has very little to do officially with Dutch government or the running of the Netherlands. Constitutionally, an important role is played by the monarch. The heir-apparent is deemed to be preparing for an eventual ascent to the throne, so there are some limited tasks and a number of limits on them (particularly he/she cannot hold a paying job, since this might lead to entanglements later on). Since neither the monarch nor the heir-apparent may hold jobs, they receive a stipend from the government. Their spouses are similarly forbidden from earning an income and receive a stipend as well. But constitutionally that is the whole of the involvement of the royal family with the Dutch government.

In particular, members of the royal house other than the monarch and the heir-apparent have no official tasks within the Dutch government and do not receive stipends. They are responsible for their own conduct and their own income. They may be asked to stand in from time to time such as to accompany the monarch on a state visit if the consort is ill, but this is always a personal favor and not an official duty. In addition, they are not exempt from taxation.

Many members of the royal family hold (or have held) significant positions within civil society, usually functioning as head or spokesperson of one or more charitable organizations, patron of the arts and similar endeavors. Some members of the royal family are also (or have been) avid supporters of some personal cause; Prince Bernhard for instance was always passionate about the treatment of World War II veterans and Princess Margriet (who was born in Canada) has a special relationship with Canadian veterans specifically. As a rule of thumb, the members of the royal family who are contemporaries of Princess Beatrix tend to hold civil society positions as a primary occupation whereas younger family members hold these positions in conjunction with a regular, paying job. A notable exception to this rule is Pieter van Vollenhoven (husband to Princess Margriet), who was chairman of the Dutch Safety Board until his retirement.

As noted earlier, the spouses of the monarch and the heir-apparent are forbidden from holding paying jobs or government responsibilities. This is to prevent any monetary entanglements or undue influences involving the current and future monarchs. These legal limits were not a great problem when they were instituted in the 19th century; The Netherlands had kings and it was considered normal for a married woman to tend the household, raise the family and not to hold any position outside the home. The limits have been more problematic since the early 20th century, when the monarchy of the Netherlands passed to a series of queens and the consorts became men, starting with Prince Hendrik in 1901. The male consorts since then have all either been raised with an expectation of government responsibility (such as Prince Hendrik), or had established careers of their own before marrying the future queen (Prince Bernhard and Prince Claus). Upon marrying into the Dutch royal family they all found themselves severely restricted in their freedom to act and make use of their abilities. All of the male consorts have been involved in some form of difficulty or another (scandals involving infidelity and finances in the cases of Hendrik and Bernhard, deep depression in the case of Claus) and it has been widely speculated (and even generally accepted) that sheer boredom played at least a part in all of these difficulties.

Over time the restrictions on royal consorts have eased somewhat. Prince Hendrik was allowed no part or role in the Netherlands whatsoever. Due to his war efforts, Prince Bernhard was made Inspector General of the Dutch armed forces (although that role was created for him) and was an unofficial ambassador for the Netherlands who leveraged his wartime contacts to help Dutch industry. All that came to a halt in 1976, however, after the Lockheed bribery scandals. Prince Claus was allowed more leeway still after having established himself in Dutch society (he was unpopular at first, being a German marrying into the royal family after World War II); he was eventually given an advisorship within the Ministry for Development Cooperation pertaining to Africa, where he made good use of his experiences as a German diplomat in that continent. Nevertheless, neither Bernhard nor Claus ever fully got over the restrictive nature of their marriages and at the time of the royal wedding in 2002 it was broadly agreed in government circles that Queen Máxima (who had a career in banking before marrying King Willem-Alexander) should be allowed far more leeway if she desires.

Deceased members of the Dutch royal family since William I

• Prince Ernest Casimir of the Netherlands (son of William II, died in 1822);
• Prince Frederik Nicholaas of the Netherlands (grandson of William I, died in 1834);
• Queen Wilhelmine (first wife of William I, died in 1837);
• King William I, Count of Nassau (died in 1843);
• Prince Willem Frederik of the Netherlands (grandson of William I, died in 1846);
• Prince Alexander of the Netherlands (son of William II, died in 1848);
• King William II (son of William I, died in 1849);
• Prince Maurice of the Netherlands (son of William III, died in 1850);
• Henrietta, Countess of Nassau (widow of William I, died in 1864);
• Queen Dowager Anna (widow of William II, died in 1865);
• Louise, Princess Frederick of the Netherlands (wife of Prince Frederick, son of William I, died in 1870);
• Queen Louise of Sweden and Norway (granddaughter of William I, died in 1871);
• Amalia, Princess Henry of the Netherlands (first wife of Prince Henry, son of William II, died in 1872);
• King Charles XV of Sweden and IV of Norway (widower of Princess Louise, granddaughter of William I, died in 1872)
• Prince Albert of Prussia (husband of Princess Mariane, daughter of William I, died in 1872);
• Queen Sophie (first wife of William III, died in 1877);
• Prince Henry of the Netherlands (1820–1879) (son of William II, died in 1879);
• William, Prince of Orange (son of William III, died in 1879);
• Prince Frederick of the Netherlands (son of William I, died in 1881);
• Marianne, Princess Albert of Prussia (daughter of William I, died in 1883);
• Alexander, Prince of Orange (son of William III, died in 1884);
• Marie, Princess Henry of the Netherlands (widow of Prince Henry, son of William II, died in 1888);
• King William III (son of William II, died in 1890);
• Sophie, Grand Duchess of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach (daughter of William II, died in 1897);
• Charles Alexander, Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach (widower of Princess Sophie, daughter of William II, died in 1901);
• William, Prince of Wied (husband of Princess Marie, granddaughter of William I, died in 1907)
• Marie, Dowager Princess of Wied (granddaughter of William I, died in 1910);
• Queen Mother Emma (widow of William III, died in 1934);
• Prince Consort Henry (husband of Wilhelmina, died in 1934);
• Queen Wilhelmina (daughter of William III, died in 1962);
• Prince Consort Claus (husband of Beatrix, died in 2002);
• Queen Juliana (daughter of Wilhelmina, died in 2004);
• Prince Consort Bernhard (widower of Juliana, died in 2004);
• Prince Friso of Orange-Nassau (son of Beatrix, died in 2013);
• Princess Christina of the Netherlands (daughter of Juliana, died in 2019);

Death and burial

Although Dutch lawmakers have historically favored being very conservative about creating a special legal position for members of the royal house or the royal family, there is one area in which the rules for members of the royal house are very different from those for other Dutch citizens: the area of death and burial.

For Dutch citizens, the rules surrounding death and burial are laid out by the Funeral Services Law (Dutch: Wet op de Lijkbezorging). However, article 87 of this law states the rule doesn't apply to the royal family. The Minister of Internal Affairs can also waive the law for other relatives of the monarch. The reason for this is that the exceptional position of members of the royal house is traditional.

Ever since the burial of William the Silent in the Nieuwe Kerk in Delft, members of the Orange-Nassau family have favored burial in the same crypt as William. Some members of the family buried elsewhere were even moved there later. However, for health and hygiene reasons, burial in churches was forbidden in the Netherlands by decree of William I in 1829. To allow members of the royal family to be entombed, all Dutch laws on burial have made an exception for the royal house ever since the 1829 decree. The practice was banned before under French occupation but returned after 1815.

The burial of the royal house members is a matter of tradition, circumstance, practicality, and spirit of the times. This is due to the lack of any formal rules whatsoever. The body of a departed member of the royal house is typically placed on display for a few days in one of the palaces to allow the family to say goodbye. Depending on the deceased family member's identity (a monarch, for instance), there may also be a viewing for the public. Then, on the burial day, the body is transported to Delft in a special horse-drawn carriage. The current protocol specifies eight horses for a deceased monarch and six for a dead royal consort, which is relatively new since Prince Hendrik was borne to Delft by eight horses. The current carriage is purple with white trim. This also changed since the burial of Queen Wilhelmina in 1962, when the carriage was white. An exception was made for the funeral of Prince Bernhard. Given his military background, his coffin was carried to Delft on a gun carriage. Currently, members of the Dutch armed forces line the route to Delft, which is also new since the burial of Prince Hendrik, which was a quiet affair.

Once in Delft, the body is placed in the family crypt after a short service. Only members of the family are allowed in the crypt through the main entrance in the church, which only opens for royal funerals (the mayor of Delft has a key to a separate service entrance, which is only allowed to open in the presence of two military police officers and two members of the Dutch General Intelligence and Security Service for maintenance).

The monarchy in Dutch society

Importance and position within Dutch society

The importance and position of the monarchy within Dutch society has changed over time, together with changes in the constitutional position of the monarchy.

The monarchy of the Netherlands was established in 1815 as a reaction to the decline and eventual fall of the Dutch Republic. It was observed at the time that a large part of the decline of the republic was due to a lack of a strong, central government in the face of strong, centrally led competitor nations such as Great Britain and the French kingdom. After the defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte in 1813 and the resurrection of the Netherlands, it was decided to reform the republic in the Kingdom of the Netherlands with a monarchy rather than the old stadtholder system.

Originally, the king was a near-autocrat. Ministers were responsible solely to him, with the States-General serving as more of an advisory board without the power to do much against the king. This state of affairs allowed the king great freedom to determine the course of the nation and indeed William I was able to push through many changes that set the nation on the course towards industrialization and wealth. He also established the first Dutch railway system and the Nederlandsche Handel Maatschappij, which would later evolve into the ABN Amro bank. On the other hand, his policies caused great discord with the Southern Netherlands, leading to the Belgian Revolution and a years-long war. A backlash against these policies plus rising fear of early Marxism led to acceptance by William II of a series of reforms, starting with a new constitution in 1848 (which was the start of a continuing series of limitations on royal power).

Direct political power and influence of the king continued until 1890, although it slowly declined in the meantime. Both William I and William II proved quite conservative rulers (although William II was less inclined to interfere with policy than his father was), William I resisted major reforms until eventually conflict with the States-General and his own government forced his abdication. William III's reign was a continuous saga of power struggles between the monarch and the parliamentary government (which he forced out a couple of times), plus major international crises due to the same stubbornness (including the Luxembourg Crisis). As a result, the Dutch government used the succession of William III by a female regent as an opportunity to make a power play and establish government authority over royal authority.

Queen Wilhelmina, who succeeded her father upon his death, was not happy with the new situation and made several half-hearted attempts during her reign to reassert authority. She was partly successful in certain areas (being able to push for military rearmament before World War I) but she never succeeded in restoring royal power and bowed fully to the principles of parliamentary democracy. She did introduce a new concept to Dutch royalty though: the popular monarch. Establishing her popularity in military circles through her support of Dutch military prior to 1917, she was able to wield her personal popularity to uphold the government against a socialist revolution in November 1918.

Royal power continued to decline until the start of World War II. Forced to flee to London, Queen Wilhelmina established the position of "mother of the Dutch state" through her radio broadcasts into the occupied Netherlands and her support for other Dutchmen evading the Germans and fighting from England. She tried to position her family into more influence by giving Prince Bernhard an important position in the military, but was still relegated to a position of constitutional monarch after the war.

Following Wilhelmina's abdication in 1948, the Orange-Nassau dynasty seems to have settled for a position of unofficial influence behind the scenes coupled with a role as "popular monarchs" in public. As such the monarchs are practically never seen in public doing their official work (except news footage of state visits and the reading of the government plans on Prinsjesdag) and instead their relationship with the public has become more of a popular and romanticized notion of royalty. Wilhelmina's daughter Juliana and granddaughter Beatrix were popularly perceived to have a figurehead role, serving to some extent as "mother of the nation" in times of crises and disasters (such as the 1953 floods). In addition, there is a public holiday called Koningsdag (King's Day, which was Koninginnedag, Queen's Day, before 2014), during which the royal family pays a visit somewhere in the country and participates in local activities and traditions in order to get closer to the people.

Popularity of the monarchy

The popularity of the monarchy has changed over time, with constitutional influence, circumstance and economic tides.

When the monarchy was established in 1815, popularity was not a major concern. Still, the Orange family held popular support in around 60% percent of the population following the fall of the French. This changed drastically over the following years as William I's policies alienated the Southern Netherlands, drew the country into civil war and established industries that favored the rich Protestants and not the general populace.

Royal popularity remained relatively low throughout the reign of the kings. William II was conservative, but on the whole did as little to lose popularity as he did to gain it. Economic decline drove most of his popular decline, although popular support for the monarch was still not considered of much import then. William III was unpopular under a wide section of the public.

Royal popularity started to increase with Wilhelmina's ascent to the throne. She pushed for national reforms, was a huge supporter of the armed forces and strove for renewed industrialization. Around 1917 the country was generally divided into two camps: socialists in the cities, royalists elsewhere. This showed in the dividing lines during the failed Troelstra revolution, where Troelstra gained popular support in the larger cities but the countryside flocked to the queen. Wilhelmina was able to muster popular support with a countryside "publicity tour" together with her daughter – this showing of popular support for the queen was instrumental in halting the revolution and stabilizing the government. Still, Wilhelmina remained deeply unpopular in the cities throughout the 1920s and 1930s.

Nationwide support came for Wilhelmina and the monarchy during World War II. Wilhelmina was forced to retreat to London, but refused evacuation all the way to Canada (although princess Juliana was sent there with her children). Wilhelmina regularly held radio broadcasts into the occupied Netherlands and staunchly supported the Dutch troops in exile. She became the symbol for Dutch resistance against the Germans.

History

สำหรับrulers of the Netherlands before 1795 ดูที่ Stadtholder สำหรับand ดูที่ List of rulers of the Netherlands

After Dutch independence, the seven provinces of the Netherlands were each led by chief-executives called stadtholders. After 1747, the office of stadtholder was centralized (one stadtholder for all provinces) and became formally inherited by the House of Orange-Nassau through primogeniture. The Netherlands remained de jure a confederated republic until the Batavian Revolution of 1795.

The House of Orange-Nassau came from Dietz, Germany, seat of one of the Nassau counties. Their title 'Prince of Orange' was acquired through inheritance of the Principality of Orange in southern France, in 1544. William of Orange (also known as William the Silent) was the first Orange-Nassau Stadtholder (ironically, appointed by Philip II of Spain). From 1568 to his death in 1584, he led the Dutch struggle for independence from Spain. His younger brother, John VI, Count of Nassau-Dillenburg, Stadtholder of Utrecht, was the direct male line ancestor of the later Stadtholders of Friesland and Groningen, the hereditary stadtholders of all the Netherlands and the first King of the Netherlands.

The present monarchy was founded in 1813, when the French were driven out. The new regime was headed by Prince William Frederick of Orange, the son of the last stadtholder. He originally reigned over only the territory of the previous republic as "sovereign prince". In 1815, after Napoleon escaped from Elba, William Frederick raised the Netherlands to the status of a kingdom and proclaimed himself King William I. As part of the rearrangement of Europe at the Congress of Vienna, the House of Orange-Nassau was confirmed as rulers of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, enlarged with what are now Belgium and Luxembourg. At the same time, William became hereditary Grand Duke of Luxembourg in exchange for ceding his family's hereditary lands in Germany to Nassau-Weilburg and Prussia. The Grand Duchy of Luxembourg was a part of the Netherlands (until 1839) while at the same time a member state of the German Confederation. It became fully independent in 1839, but remained in a personal union with the Kingdom of the Netherlands until 1890.

Abdication of the throne has become a de facto tradition in the Dutch monarchy. Queen Wilhelmina and Queen Juliana both abdicated in favor of their daughters and William I abdicated in favor of his eldest son, William II. The only Dutch monarchs to die on the throne were William II and William III.

On 30 April 2013 Queen Beatrix, abdicated in favor of Crown Prince Willem-Alexander.

List of hereditary heads of state

บทความหลัก: List of monarchs of the Netherlands

Religious affiliation

The Dutch Royal Family historically have been members of the Dutch Reformed Church. It became the Protestant Church in the Netherlands after its 2004 merger, but some members of the royal family are Roman Catholic. There is no law in the Netherlands stipulating what religion the monarch should be, although the constitution stipulated up to 1983 that marriage to a Catholic meant loss of rights to the throne (the constitutional overhaul of 1983 changed this to a requirement that potential heirs must seek parliamentary approval before marriage in order to retain rights of succession).

Royal finances

The royal palaces are the property of the Dutch state and given for the use of the reigning monarch; While the House of Orange-Nassau possesses a large number of personal belongings, items such as paintings, historical artifacts and jewelry are usually associated with the performance of royal duties and/or the decoration of royal residences. As such, these items have a cultural significance beyond that of simple artworks and jewelry, and have therefore been placed in the hands of trusts: the House of Orange-Nassau Archives Trust and the House of Orange-Nassau Historic Collections Trust. Part of the collection is on permanent loan to Het Loo Palace Museum in Apeldoorn and the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam. Queen Juliana sold the remaining royal palaces and put the cultural assets (paintings, antiques, books, etc.) into non-personal trusts.

The crown jewels, comprising the crown, orb and sceptre, Sword of State, royal banner, and ermine mantle have been placed in the Crown Property Trust. The trust also holds the items used on ceremonial occasions, such as the carriages, table silver, and dinner services. Placing these goods in the hands of a trust ensures that they will remain at the disposal of the monarch in perpetuity. The Royal Archives house the personal archives of the royal family. This includes books, photographs, and artworks, as well as the books of the House of Orange-Nassau and the music library. The library was begun in 1813, following the return of the Orange-Nassaus to the Netherlands. King William I allowed the Stadtholder's library to remain part of the Royal Library in The Hague. The library houses a collection of some 70,000 books, journals and brochures. The music library has 6,000 scores, going back to the mid 18th century.

The Royal House Finances Act (1972) as amended in 2008 sets allowances for the King (or Queen Regnant), the Heir to the Throne, and the former sovereign who has abdicated. Provision is also made for their spouses (and in the case of death, for the surviving spouse). The allowances have two components: income (A-component) and personnel and materials (B-component). Annual increases or decreases are provided for: the A component is linked to changes in the annual salary of the Vice-President of the Council of State; the B-component is linked to changes in civil service pay and the cost of living.

In 2009, the government decided that the annual state budget of the Netherlands should show in a transparent way all the costs of the royal house, some of which had previously been borne by various Government Ministries. Three sets of costs are now separately allocated in the annual budget for the royal house (Budget I of the annual State Budget). These are:

• Allowances paid under the Royal House Finances Act. They comprise the income and personnel and materials components mentioned above.
• Expenses incurred in the performance of official duties. They include costs which had previously been borne by the budgets of three Government Ministries (Interior, Transport and Water Management, Health and Welfare) and which are now attributed to the Royal budget in the interest of transparency. They also include the costs relating to royal flights and the royal yacht, Groene Draeck.
• Other expenses relating to the management of the royal house. They relate to expenses for the Government Information Service (AZ/RVD) in connection with the royal house, the cost of the Royal Military Household, the Queen's Cabinet and the travel and other costs incurred by royal visits to overseas provinces and countries within the Dutch Kingdom (former Netherlands Antilles and Aruba).

Costs relating to the security of members of the royal house, state visits, and the maintenance and upkeep of the royal palaces (which are considered to be national monuments) continue to be funded by the budgets of the appropriate Government Ministries and are not included in the budget for the royal house.

According to the State Budget for 2010, the budgetary allocation for the royal house in 2010 is €39.643 million. There are the following categories of expenditure:

• Allowances paid to the King, Queen Máxima, and the Princess under the Royal House Finances Act. They total some €7.102 million in 2010.
• Expenses incurred in the performance of official duties. They total some €26.818 million in 2010.
• Other expenses relating to the management of the royal house. They total some €5.723 million in 2010.

Monarchs of the Netherlands

บทความหลัก: List of monarchs of the Netherlands

Wilhelmina (1890–1948)

บทความหลัก: Wilhelmina of the Netherlands

When Wilhelmina came to the Dutch throne in 1890 at age 10, the throne of Luxembourg went to her very distant agnate (but incidentally also her maternal granduncle), Adolf, former Duke of Nassau. Thus ended the personal union between the Netherlands and Luxembourg.

The 58-year reign of Queen Wilhelmina was dominated by the two World Wars. She married a German prince, Duke Henry of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, who was not happy with his unrewarding role of husband-to-the-queen. Wilhelmina's strong personality and unrelenting passion to fulfill her inherited task overpowered many men in position of authority, including ministers, Prime Ministers and her own husband. She is mostly remembered for her role during World War II. The initial disappointment of many Dutch people because of her quick withdrawal to London faded (though it was never forgotten and by some was never forgiven) when she proved to be of great moral support to the people and the resistance in her occupied country, Netherlands. Hendrik and Wilhelmina had one daughter, Juliana, who came to the throne in 1948. They lived in The Hague and in Palace 't Loo (Paleis 't Loo) in Apeldoorn. She died in 1962.

Juliana (1948–1980)

บทความหลัก: Juliana of the Netherlands

แม่แบบ:NassauNeth Juliana reigned from 1948 until 1980, and whereas Wilhelmina reigned like a general, Juliana expressed a more motherly character. One of her first official acts was to sign the treaty of independence of the Dutch colony Indonesia. During her reign the monarchy became entangled in two major crises: the Greet Hofmans affair and the Lockheed bribery scandals. In the first it was her involvement in a mystic pacifist group that was a cause for concern. The second crisis announced itself when it became known that, the queen's husband, Prince Bernard von Lippe-Biesterfeld, had taken bribes to advance Lockheed's bid. After an inquiry, the prince was forbidden to perform the military tasks he had performed since 1945, but in this crisis neither the monarchy itself, nor Juliana's position, was ever in doubt. She and Bernhard had four daughters, Beatrix, Irene, Margriet and Christina. After their return from Ottawa, Ontario, Canada in 1945 (where Margriet was born), they lived in the Soestdijk Palace (Paleis Soestdijk) in Soestdijk, about 20 km north-east of Utrecht. She died on 20 March 2004. Her husband Bernhard died on 1 December 2004.

Beatrix (1980–2013)

บทความหลัก: Beatrix of the Netherlands

The Dutch royal family today is much larger than it has ever been. Princess Beatrix and Prince Claus had three sons: King Willem-Alexander (married to Queen Máxima), Prince Friso (whose widow is Princess Mabel) and Prince Constantijn (married to Princess Laurentien). Her sister Princess Margriet and Pieter van Vollenhoven have four sons, princes Maurits, Bernhard, Pieter-Christiaan and Floris. Princess Margriet is in line to the throne behind King Willem-Alexander's daughters, princesses Catharina-Amalia, Alexia, and Ariane, and his brother Prince Constantijn. Prince Friso lost his right to the throne because no approval was asked for his marriage to Mabel Wisse Smit to the States-General. The two other sisters of Beatrix, Irene and Christina, lost their rights to the throne because their marriages were not approved by the States-General. They both married Roman Catholics and Irene herself converted to Roman Catholicism, which at that time (the 1960s) was still politically problematic. An additional complication which the government wanted to avoid, was that Irene's husband, Prince Carlos-Hugo of Bourbon-Parma (whom she later divorced), was a member of a deposed Spanish-Italian dynasty who controversially claimed the Spanish throne. Traditionally, Dutch monarchs have always been members of the Dutch Reformed Church although this was never constitutionally required. This tradition is embedded in the history of the Netherlands.

On 28 January 2013, the Queen announced that she would abdicate on 30 April 2013 in favour of her eldest son.

Willem-Alexander (2013–present)

บทความหลัก: Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands

The current monarch is King Willem-Alexander (born 1967), who has been on the Throne since 30 April 2013. He studied history at the University of Leiden and became actively involved in water management. His wife is Queen Máxima (née Máxima Zorreguieta Cerruti), an economics major, whose father was a minister of agriculture in the dictatorial regime under General Videla in Argentina. Because of that their relationship was accompanied by fierce public debate and only officially sanctioned after quiet diplomacy, resulting in Máxima's father agreeing not to be present on their wedding day (2 February 2002). Former minister Max van der Stoel and Prime Minister Wim Kok seem to have played a crucial role in this process.

On 7 December 2003 Princess Máxima gave birth to a daughter: Princess Catharina-Amalia. On 26 June 2005 another daughter was born: Princess Alexia. On 10 April 2007 a third daughter was born, Princess Ariane. They are first, second and third in line to the Dutch throne.

His mother, Queen Beatrix abdicated the Throne on 30 April 2013. On that day, Willem-Alexander became the new King and was sworn in and inaugurated in the Nieuwe Kerk in Amsterdam, in a session of the States-General.

Heir apparent

The heir apparent to the Dutch throne is Amalia, Princess of Orange.

Full title

ดูเพิ่ม: Style of the Dutch sovereign และ Maps of the Lands of the House of Orange

Most members of the Dutch royal family, in addition to other titles hold (or held) the princely title Prince of Orange-Nassau. The children of Prince Friso and Prince Constantijn are instead counts and countesses of Orange-Nassau. In addition to the titles King/Prince of the Netherlands and Prince of Orange-Nassau, daughters of Queen Juliana and Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld hold another princely title – Princesses of Lippe-Biesterfeld. The children of Queen Beatrix and their male-line descendants, except for the children of King Willem-Alexander, also carry the appellative Honourable (Jonkheer/Jonkvrouw) in combination with the name 'Van Amsberg'.

Queen Juliana, the only child of Queen Wilhelmina and Duke Henry of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, was also a Duchess of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. Since the title can pass only through the male line, Queen Juliana's descendants do not carry the title of Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin.

The title Prince of the Netherlands is the prerogative of the most important members of the royal house (children of the monarch and of the heir apparent), which is smaller than the royal family. Members of the royal house can lose their membership when they enter into marriage without asking (and receiving) consent from Parliament.

In addition to this, the Dutch Monarch carries a number of subsidiary titles, of more historical than practical note, that have been passed down through the House of Orange-Nassau and represent the accretion of lands and influence by their ancestors:

Duke of Limburg, Count of Katzenelnbogen, Vianden, Diez, Spiegelberg, Buren, Leerdam and Culemborg, Marquis of Veere and Vlissingen, Baron of Breda, Diest, Beilstein, the town of Grave and the lands of Cuyk, IJsselstein, Cranendonk, Eindhoven and Liesveld, Hereditary Lord and Seigneur of Ameland, Lord of Borculo, Bredevoort, Lichtenvoorde, 't Loo, Geertruidenberg, Klundert, Zevenbergen, Hoge and Lage Zwaluwe, Naaldwijk, Polanen, St Maartensdijk, Soest, Baarn and Ter Eem, Willemstad, Steenbergen, Montfort, St Vith, Bütgenbach and Dasburg, Viscount of Antwerp.

Probably the most important of these was the Barony of Breda, which formed the core of the Nassau lands in the Netherlands (Brabant) even before they inherited the Principality of Orange in what is now southern France. This was probably followed by the Viscountship/Burgravate of Antwerp, which allowed William the Silent to control a large amount of the politics in that then very important city, followed by the Marquisate of Veere, which allowed William the Silent and his descendants to control the votes of the province of Zeeland.

The royal family and the royal house

ดูเพิ่ม: House of Orange-Nassau

A distinction is made in the Netherlands between the royal family and the royal house. The royal family includes people born into the family (and legally recognised as such) or who have married into the family. However, not every member of the royal family is a member of the royal house.

By Act of Parliament, the members of the royal house are:

• the monarch (King or Queen);
• the former monarch (upon abdication);
• the members of the royal family in the line of succession to the throne who are not further removed from the monarch than the second degree of consanguinity;
• Princess Margriet of the Netherlands;
• the spouses of the above.

Members of the royal house can lose their membership and designation as prince or princess of the Netherlands if they marry without the consent of the Dutch Parliament. This happened to Prince Friso when he married Mabel Wisse Smit. This is stated explicitly in the part of the Constitution of the Netherlands that controls the monarchy of the Netherlands.

Members of the royal house

According to the official website, the members of the royal house are currently:

• HM King Willem-Alexander, The King of the Netherlands (the sovereign)
• HM Queen Maxima, The Queen of the Netherlands (the king's wife)
• HRH Princess Beatrix of the Netherlands (the king's mother and predecessor)
• HRH Princess Catharina-Amalia, The Princess of Orange (the king's first daughter and heir)
• HRH Princess Alexia of the Netherlands (the king's second daughter)
• HRH Princess Ariane of the Netherlands (the king's third daughter)
• HRH Prince Constantijn of the Netherlands (the king's brother)
• HRH Princess Laurentien of the Netherlands (the king's sister-in-law)
• HRH Princess Margriet of the Netherlands (the king's aunt)
• Prof. Pieter van Vollenhoven (the king's uncle)

Members of the royal family

According to the official website, the royal family consists of the members of the royal house plus other legitimate descendants of Queen Juliana:

• Descendants of Princess Beatrix
  • Children of Prince Constantijn
    • Countess Eloise of Orange-Nassau, Jonkvrouwe van Amsberg
    • Count Claus-Casimir of Orange-Nassau, Jonkheer van Amsberg
    • Countess Leonore of Orange-Nassau, Jonkvrouwe van Amsberg
  • HRH Princess Mabel of Orange-Nassau
    • Countess Luana of Orange-Nassau
    • Countess Zaria of Orange-Nassau
• HRH Princess Irene of the Netherlands
  • HRH Prince Carlos Xavier, The Duke of Parma and Piacenza
  • HRH Princess Annemarie, The Duchess of Parma and Piacenza
    • HRH Prince Hugo de Bourbon de Parme (born illegitimate son of Prince Carlos Xavier and Brigitte Klynstra)
    • HRH Princess Luisa Irene, The Marchioness of Castell'Arquato
    • HRH Princess Cecilia Maria, The Countess of Berceto
    • HRH Prince Carlos, The Prince of Piacenza
  • HRH Princess Margarita, The Countess of Colorno
  • Mr Tjalling ten Cate
    • Miss Julia ten Cate
    • Miss Paola ten Cate
  • HRH Prince Jaime, The Count of Bardi
  • HRH Princess Viktória, The Countess of Bardi
    • HRH Princess Zita Clara of Bourbon-Parma
    • HRH Princess Gloria Irene of Bourbon-Parma
  • HRH Princess Carolina, The Marchioness of Sala
  • Mr Albert Brenninkmeijer
    • Miss Alaïa-Maria Brenninkmeijer
    • Mr Xavier Brenninkmeijer
• Descendants of Princess Margriet
  • HH Prince Maurits of Orange-Nassau, van Vollenhoven
  • HH Princess Marilène of Orange-Nassau, van Vollenhoven-van den Broek
    • Miss Anna van Lippe-Biesterfeld van Vollenhoven
    • Mr Lucas van Lippe-Biesterfeld van Vollenhoven
    • Miss Felicia van Lippe-Biesterfeld van Vollenhoven
  • HH Prince Bernhard of Orange-Nassau, van Vollenhoven
  • HH Princess Annette of Orange-Nassau, van Vollenhoven-Sekrève
    • Miss Isabella van Vollenhoven
    • Mr Samuel van Vollenhoven
    • Mr Benjamin van Vollenhoven
  • HH Prince Pieter-Christiaan of Orange-Nassau, van Vollenhoven
  • HH Princess Anita of Orange-Nassau, van Vollenhoven-van Eijk
    • Miss Emma van Vollenhoven
    • Mr Pieter van Vollenhoven
  • HH Prince Floris of Orange-Nassau, van Vollenhoven
  • HH Princess Aimée of Orange-Nassau, van Vollenhoven-Söhngen
    • Miss Magali van Vollenhoven
    • Miss Eliane van Vollenhoven
    • Mr Willem Jan van Vollenhoven
• Descendants of the late Princess Christina
  • Mr Bernardo Guillermo
  • Mrs Eva Guillermo
    • Miss Isabel Guillermo
    • Mr Julián Guillermo
  • Mr Nicolás Guillermo
    • Mr Joaquín Guillermo
    • Miss Carmen Guillermo
  • Miss Juliana Guillermo
    • Mr Kai Bodhi
    • Mr Numa Bodhi
    • Miss Aida Bodhi

Family tree of current members

ดูเพิ่ม: Family tree of Dutch monarchs

Queen Juliana

Prince Bernhard

Queen Beatrix*

Prince Claus

Princess Irene^

Prince Carlos Hugo, Duke of Parma (div. 1981)

Princess Margriet, Mrs. van Vollenhoven*^

Prof. Pieter van Vollenhoven*^

Princess Christina

Jorge Guillermo (div. 1996)

Bernardo Guillermo^

Eva Marie Valdez^

Nicolás Guillermo^

Juliana Guillermo^

Prince Maurits^

Princess Marilène^

Prince Bernhard^

Princess Annette^

Prince Pieter-Christiaan^

Princess Anita^

Princess Aimée^

Prince Floris^

The Duke of Parma^

The Duchess of Parma^

The Countess of Colorno^

Tjalling Siebe ten Cate^

The Count of Bardi^

The Countess of Bardi^

The Marchioness of Sala^

Albert Brenninkmeijer^

The King*

The Queen*

Prince Friso

Princess Mabel**

Prince Constantijn*

Princess Laurentien*

The Princess of Orange*

Princess Alexia*

Princess Ariane*

Countess Luana**

Countess Zaria**

Countess Eloise**

Count Claus-Casimir**

Countess Leonore**

Notes

* Member of the Dutch royal house

** Member of the royal family

^ Member of the extended royal family

Standards

The Dutch royal family also makes extensive use of royal standards that are based on their coats of arms. While these are heraldic flags, they are not a person's coat of arms in banner form as the British royal family does. Some examples from the royal family's website are:

• The standards of the ruling king or queen:

• 
  Royal Flag of the Netherlands until 1908
• 
  Current Royal Standard of the Netherlands

• The standards of the current sons of Princess Beatrix and their wives, and the Princess' husband:

• 
  Royal Standard of the Princes of the Netherlands (Sons of Queen Beatrix)
• 
  Standard of Claus von Amsberg as Royal consort of the Netherlands
• 
  Standard of Princess Máxima of the Netherlands
• 
  Standard of Princess Laurentien of the Netherlands

• The standards of the sisters of Princess Beatrix and their children:

• 
  Standard of the Princesses of the Netherlands (Daughters of Queen Juliana)
• 
  Standard of the Princes of Oranje-Nassau (Sons of Princess Margriet )

• The standards of former members of the royal family:

• 
  Standard of Juliana of the Netherlands as Princess
• 
  Standard of Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld as Royal consort of the Netherlands
• 
  Standard of Hendrik of Mecklenburg-Schwerin as Royal consort of the Netherlands
• 
  Standard of Queen Mother Emma of the Netherlands
• 
  Standard of Marie of Wied, Princess of the Netherlands

Monograms

Like most Royal Families, the Dutch royal family also makes use of royal monograms. Some examples from the royal family's website are:

• The monograms of the ruling kings or queens:

• 
  King Willem-Alexander
• 
  Queen Beatrix
• 
  Queen Juliana
• 
  Queen Juliana, Variant
• 
  Queen Wilhelmina
• 
  William I-III
• 
  William I

• The monograms of some members of the royal family;

• 
  Queen Anna Pavlovna
• 
  Queen Sophie
• 
  Queen Emma
• 
  Queen Emma, Variant
• 
  Prince Henry
• 
  Prince Bernhard
• 
  Queen Juliana and Prince Bernhard
• 
  Prince Claus
• 
  Queen Máxima
• 
  Willem-Alexander and Máxima
• 
  Prince Friso
• 
  Prince Friso and Princess Mabel
• 
  Prince Constantijn
• 
  Princess Laurentien
• 
  Prince Constantijn and Princess Laurentien
• 
  Catharina Amalia, The Princess of Orange

See also

• List of heirs to the Dutch throne
• List of monarchs of the Netherlands
• List of rulers of the Netherlands
• List of stadtholders for the Low Countries provinces
• Monarchies in Europe

References

External links

• Official website of the Dutch Royal House