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การมองเห็นเริ่มต้นของแม่แบบนี้ ปัจจุบันมีค่าเริ่มต้นเป็น autocollapse หมายความว่า หากมีวัตถุอื่นที่มีคุณลักษณะยุบได้วางอยู่ในหน้า (navbox, sidebar หรือตารางที่ยุบได้) แม่แบบนี้จะถูกซ่อนให้เหลือแต่แถบชื่อเรื่อง หากไม่มี ก็จะสามารถเห็นได้ทั้งหมด

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References

ข้อพิพาทลิขสิทธิ์ภาพเซลฟีลิง (Monkey selfie copyright dispute)

หนึ่งในภาพเซลฟีลิงที่เป็นประเด็นในข้อพิพาท

ในช่วง ค.ศ. 2011 ถึง 2018 มีข้อพิพาทเกี่ยวกับสถานะลิขสิทธิ์ของภาพเซลฟีของลิงกังดำโดยใช้อุปกรณ์ของเดวิด เจ. สเลเทอร์ (David J. Slater) ช่างภาพสัตว์ป่าชาวบริติช ข้อพิพาทมความเกี่ยวข้องกับวิกิมีเดียคอมมอนส์ และบล็อก เทคเดิร์ต ที่แสดงภาพหลังจากเผยแพร่ในหนังสือพิมพ์เมื่อเดือนกรกฎาคม ค.ศ. 2011 เนื่องจากคำคัดค้านของสเลเทอร์ว่าเขาถือลิขสิทธิ์ และ People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) ที่โต้แย้งว่าควรมอบลิขสิทธิ์ให้กับลิงมาคาก

สเลเทอร์โต้แย้งว่าเขาอ้างสิทธิ์ในลิขสิทธิ์อย่างถูกต้อง เนื่องจากเขาออกแบบสถานการณ์ที่ว่า ด้วยการเดินทางไปอินโดนีเซีย ผูกมิตรกับลิงมาคากกลุ่มหนึ่ง และตั้งค่าอุปกรณ์กล้องในลักษณะที่ทำให้เซลฟีได้ The Wikimedia Foundation's 2014 refusal to remove the pictures from its Wikimedia Commons image library was based on the understanding that copyright is held by the creator, that a non-human creator (ไม่ใช่legal person) cannot hold copyright, ดังนั้น ภาพนี้จึงเป็นสาธารณสมบัติ

สเลเทอร์กล่าวในเดือนสิงหาคม ค.ศ. 2014 ว่านับตั้งแต่ภาพนั้นปรากฏในวิกิพีเดีย เขาสูญเสียรายได้อย่างน้อย £10,000 (เทียบเท่าประมาณ 12,000 ปอนด์ ใน ค.ศ. 2021) และธุรกิจของเขาในฐานะช่างภาพสัตว์ป่าถูกทำให้เสียหาย ในเดือนธันวาคม ค.ศ. 2014 สำนักงานลิขสิทธิ์แห่งสหรัฐระบุว่า ผลงานที่ไม่ได้สร้างโดยมนุษย์ อย่างภาพถ่ายที่ลิงเป็นผู้ถ่าย ไม่มีลิขสิทธิ์ A number of legal experts in the US and UK have argued that Slater's role in the photographic process may have been sufficient to establish a valid copyright claim, though this decision would have to be made by a court.

In a separate dispute, PETA tried to use the monkey selfies to establish a legal precedent that animals should be declared copyright holders. Slater had published a book containing the photographs through the self-publishing company Blurb, Inc. In September 2015, PETA filed a lawsuit against Slater and Blurb, requesting that the copyright be assigned to the macaque and that PETA be appointed to administer proceeds from the photos for the endangered species' benefit. In dismissing PETA's case, a federal district court ruled that a monkey cannot own copyright under US law. PETA appealed. In September 2017, PETA and Slater agreed to a settlement in which Slater would donate a portion of future revenues on the photographs to wildlife organizations. However, the court of appeals declined to dismiss the appeal and declined to vacate the lower court judgment. In April 2018, the appeals court ruled that animals cannot legally hold copyrights and expressed concern that PETA's motivations had been to promote their own interests rather than to protect the legal rights of Naruto.

ภูมิหลัง

ภาพพิพาทอีกอันที่เป็น "เซลฟี" เต็มตัว

Since 2008, British nature photographer David Slater had traveled to Indonesia to take photographs of the critically endangered Celebes crested macaques. In 2011 he licensed several images to the Caters News Agency who released them, along with a written promotional press release with quotes from Slater, for publication in the British media. On 4 July 2011 several publications, including The Telegraph and The Guardian, picked up the story and published the pictures along with articles that quoted Slater as describing the photographs as self-portraits taken by the monkeys, such as "Monkey steals camera to snap himself" (The Telegraph), and "a camera on a tripod" triggered by the monkeys (The Guardian). The articles also contained Slater quotes such as "He must have taken hundreds of pictures by the time I got my camera back." The following day, Amateur Photographer reported that Slater gave them further explanation as to how the photographs were created, downplaying the way newspaper articles had described them; Slater said reports that a monkey ran off with his camera and "began taking self-portraits" were incorrect and that the portrait was shot when his camera had been mounted on a tripod, with the primates playing around with a remote cable release as he fended off other monkeys.

Slater gave further description on his website and in other media accounts, saying he and a guide followed the monkeys for three days, gaining their trust on the second day. According to Slater, in his attempts to get photographs of the monkeys, he found that they were fascinated with the camera and the camera gear and kept playing with it, but they also kept trying to run off with the camera. Slater further stated in a 7 August 2014 Amateur Photographer follow-up article that "I wanted a close-up image but I couldn't do it. They were too nervous, so I had to get them [the monkeys] to come to the camera without me being there and get them to play with the release, which they did". He added: "They were looking at the reflection in the lens, which they found amusing". In an attempt to get a portrait of the monkeys' faces, Slater said he set the camera on a tripod with a large wide-angle lens attached, and set the camera's settings to optimize the chances of getting a facial close up, using predictive autofocus, motor drive, and a flashgun. Slater further stated that he set the camera's remote shutter trigger next to the camera and, while he held onto the tripod, the monkeys spent 30 minutes looking into the lens and playing with the camera gear, triggering the remote multiple times and capturing many photographs. The session ended when the "dominant male at times became over excited and eventually gave me a whack with his hand as he bounced off my back". Slater also said in a 28 July 2017 Vice magazine interview that some news outlets were misreporting how he obtained the selfie, but he went along with it because it was "a bit of fun and some good publicity for the conservation cause".

ปัญหาสิขสิทธิ์

On 9 July 2011, an editor on Wikimedia Commons, a site that only accepts media available under a free content license or in the public domain, uploaded the selfie photographs from The Daily Mail. The uploader asserted that the photographs were in the public domain as "the work of a non-human animal", adding that "it has no human author in whom copyright is vested". Slater discovered this a few days later and requested that the Wikimedia Foundation remove the photos. Initially, an administrator at Commons removed the images, but they were later restored after a community discussion on their copyright nature. Slater continued to challenge the foundation to remove the image. The foundation reviewed the situation, but made the determination that the images were in the public domain and denied Slater's request; in its transparency report for August 2014, the foundation stated "copyright cannot vest in non-human authors" and "when a work's copyright cannot vest in a human, it falls into the public domain".

Slater's conflict with the Wikimedia Foundation was covered by the blog Techdirt on 12 July 2011. Techdirt posted the photograph with a public domain license, arguing that the photograph was in the public domain because the monkey was not a legal person capable of holding a copyright, and Slater could not hold copyright to the photo because he was not involved in its creation. Afterwards, Caters News Agency issued a request for the photo to be removed, citing a lack of permission; however, in response to a reply by the blog's author, Mike Masnick, the representative stated that Masnick had "blatantly 'lifted' these photographs from somewhere – I presume the Daily Mail online", and continued to request its removal. Masnick claimed that even if it were capable of being copyrighted, the photo's use on Techdirt would be considered fair use under United States copyright law. He believed that "regardless of the issue of who does and doesn't own the copyright – it is 100% clear that the copyright owner is not yourself."

Slater counterargued in response to both the Wikimedia Foundation and Techdirt that he had made significant creative contributions to the monkey selfie photographs that would make the public domain argument moot. Slater told the BBC, "I became accepted as part of the troop, they touched me and groomed me ... so I thought they could take their own photograph. I set the camera up on a tripod, framed [the shot] up and got the exposure right ... and all you've got to do is give the monkey the button to press and lo and behold you got the picture." In a story published on or before 14 August 2014 on his own website, Slater said that the monkeys stealing the camera was a separate incident that occurred before the "selfies" were taken. Slater went on to say, "I put my camera on a tripod with a very wide angle lens, settings configured such as predictive autofocus, motorwind, even a flashgun, to give me a chance of a facial close up if they were to approach again for a play ... I had one hand on the tripod when this was going on, but I was being prodded and poked by would be groomers and a few playful juveniles who nibbled at my arms." In a November 2017 interview with the radio show This American Life, Slater said that he was holding the tripod with his fingers when the images were taken.

Expert opinions

Expert opinion on whether Slater owns the copyright on the photographs is mixed. On 21 August 2014 the United States Copyright Office published an opinion, later included in the third edition of the office's Compendium of U.S. Copyright Office Practices, released on 22 December 2014, to clarify that "only works created by a human can be copyrighted under United States law, which excludes photographs and artwork created by animals or by machines without human intervention" and that "Because copyright law is limited to 'original intellectual conceptions of the author', the [copyright] office will refuse to register a claim if it determines that a human being did not create the work. The Office will not register works produced by nature, animals, or plants." The compendium specifically highlights "a photograph taken by a monkey" as an example of something that cannot be copyrighted.

The intellectual property lawyers Mary M. Luria and Charles Swan said that because the creator of the photograph is an animal and not a person, there is no copyright on the photograph, regardless of who owns the equipment with which the photograph was created. According to the American legal scholar Jessica Litman, "No human author has rights to a photograph taken by a monkey ... The original monkey selfie is in the public domain". She said that the US Copyright Office was clarifying existing practice, and not creating a new policy. However, the American art lawyer Nicholas O'Donnell of Sullivan & Worcester LLP commented that "even if 'a photograph taken by a monkey' cannot be copyrighted by the monkey, it is not clear why that would categorically rule out any copyright for a human author in a work in which cameras are intentionally left in a place where some natural force or animal will cause them to snap a photo".

On 22 August 2014, the day after the US Copyright Office published their opinion, a spokesperson for the UK Intellectual Property Office was quoted as saying that, while animals cannot own copyright under UK law, "the question as to whether the photographer owns copyright is more complex. It depends on whether the photographer has made a creative contribution to the work and this is a decision which must be made by the courts."

The British media lawyer Christina Michalos said that on the basis of British law on computer-generated art, it is arguable that Slater may own copyrights on the photograph, because he owned and presumably had set up the camera. Similarly, Serena Tierney, of London lawyers BDB, stated, "If he checked the angle of the shot, set up the equipment to produce a picture with specific light and shade effects, set the exposure or used filters or other special settings, light and that everything required is in the shot, and all the monkey contributed was to press the button, then he would seem to have a passable claim that copyright subsists in the photo in the UK and that he is the author and so first owner." Furthermore, Andres Guadamuz, a lecturer in IP law at Sussex University, has written that existing European case law, particularly Infopaq International A/S v Danske Dagblades Forening, makes it clear that the selection of photographs would be enough to warrant originality if the process reflects the personality of the photographer. Iain Connor, a partner in Pinsent Masons, similarly said that the photographer could claim they had "put the camera in the hands of the monkey so [they had] taken some creative steps and therefore own the copyright," and that "if it's an animal that presses the button, it should be the owner of the camera that owns the copyright to that photo."

Naruto v. David Slater et al.

Video of oral argument before the Ninth Circuit from 12 July 2017

The macaque photographs appeared in a book titled "Wildlife Personalities" that Slater had published via San Francisco-based self-publishing company Blurb, Inc. On 22 September 2015, People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) filed a lawsuit against Slater and Blurb in the United States District Court for the Northern District of California to request that the monkey, whom they named Naruto, be assigned copyright and that PETA be appointed to administer proceeds from the photos for the benefit of Naruto and other crested macaques in the reserve on Sulawesi. PETA did so by using the next friend principle, which allows persons to sue in the name of another person who is unable to do so. In November, Angela Dunning, the attorney for Blurb, noted that PETA may have been suing on behalf of the wrong monkey.

During a hearing in January 2016, US District Judge William Orrick III said that the copyright law does not extend its protection to animals. Orrick dismissed the case on 28 January, ruling that "if Congress and the president intended to take the extraordinary step of authorizing animals as well as people and legal entities to sue, they could, and should, have said so plainly." On 20 March 2016, PETA filed a notice of appeal to the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals. On 12 July 2017, the court held an oral argument on the matter in San Francisco. On 4 August 2017, lawyers for all parties to the case informed the court that they expected to arrive at an out-of-court settlement in the near future, asking the court not to issue a ruling. The court on 11 August stayed the appeal to 8 September. An agreement between Slater, Blurb, and PETA was reached on 11 September 2017, in which Slater will donate 25 per cent of any future revenues from the monkey selfies to charities that protect the wildlife of monkeys like Naruto, but the court has not accepted this agreement as being a valid settlement. As part of their joint motion to dismiss the appeal and vacate the judgment, the parties have asked for vacatur, which would nullify the record in the lower court. The Competitive Enterprise Institute filed an amicus brief on 13 September 2017, urging the court to deny vacatur. The brief argues that since Naruto is not a party to the settlement, PETA does not have standing to move for vacatur.

In April 2018, the Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit denied the motions to vacate the case. On 23 April, the court issued its ruling in favor of Slater, finding that animals have no legal authority to hold copyright claims. The court also expressed concern with PETA's motivations and actions during the case that were aligned to promote their own interests rather than to protect Naruto, as they found PETA's actions—i.e. attempting to vacate the case when the group learned of the potential for landmark case law to be set—to be troubling. The judges noted that their decision had to be considered in light of Cetacean Community v. Bush, a 2004 case heard by the Ninth Circuit that found, under some circumstances, animals could have some standing to seek legal action, and encourages that the Ninth Circuit should hold an en banc hearing to review their decision in Cetacean in light of the monkey selfie case. On 25 May, a Ninth Circuit judge made a call for the case to be heard en banc, potentially to overrule the Cetaceans Community precedent. The court requested the parties to provide briefs within 21 days on whether the en banc hearing should be granted and on 31 August, they declined to review the case.

ผลกระทบต่อสเลเทอร์

Slater told BBC News that he had suffered financial loss as a result of the pictures being available on Wikimedia Commons. He said the photograph had made him £2,000 in the first year after it was taken, but that interest in purchasing it disappeared after it was used on Wikipedia. He estimated that he had lost £10,000 in income, and said it was "killing his business". Slater was quoted by The Daily Telegraph as saying, "What they don't realise is that it needs a court to decide [the copyright]." In January 2016, Slater stated his intention to sue Wikipedia for copyright infringement of his works.

By July 2017, Slater was reported to be having financial problems and was unable to pay his attorney. While he had originally made a few thousand pounds from the images, enough to recoup his travel costs to Indonesia, this income reduced to about "£100 every few months" when the Wikimedia Foundation refused to stop making the images available without his permission.

Slater was unable to travel to the July 2017 court hearing in the United States for lack of funds and said he was considering alternative careers as a dog walker or tennis coach. He said he was no longer motivated to take photographs, that he had become depressed, and that his efforts to "highlight the plight of the monkeys" had "backfired on my private life" and ruined his life. However, Slater said he was delighted by the impact of the photoshoot itself: "It has taken six years for my original intention to come true which was to highlight the plight of the monkeys and bring it to the world. No one had heard of these monkeys six years ago, they were down to the last thousands. ... The locals used to roast them, but now they love them, they call it the 'selfie monkey'. Tourists are now visiting and people see there is a longer-term benefit to the community than just shooting a monkey."

In May 2018, Condé Nast Entertainment acquired the rights from Slater to make a documentary film related to the monkey selfie dispute. The project was being overseen by Dawn Ostroff and Jeremy Steckler.

แหล่งข้อมูลอื่น

• Naruto v. Slater, et al., no. 16-15469 (9th Cir. 12 July 2017). Oral argument. (audio;video)
• Naruto v. Slater, et al., no. 16-15469 (9th Cir. 23 April 2018). (opinion of the court).
• Jiang, Jialei (August 2019). "What Monkeys Teach Us About Authorship: Toward a Distributed Agency in Digital Composing Practices." Kairos. Retrieved 5 March 2020. (Commentary).
• Conn Ó Muíneacháin, "‘Monkey Selfie’ Photographer David Slater on his Fight with Wikipedia (audio)", www.technology.ie/ August 14, 2014. —Audio file.

จูเลียน (จักรพรรดิ) (Julian (emperor))

Waniosa Amedestir/ทดลองเขียน
Bronze coin of Julian from Antioch. Legend: d n Fl Cl Iulianus p f aug.
Roman emperor
Augustus	3 November 361 – 26 June 363 (proclaimed in early 360)
ก่อนหน้า	Constantius II
ถัดไป	Jovian
Caesar	6 November 355 – early 360
ประสูติ	17 November 331 Constantinople
สวรรคต	26 June 363 (aged 31) Frygium, Mesopotamia
ฝังพระศพ	Tarsus, then Church of the Holy Apostles
คู่อภิเษก	Helena (m. 355, died 360)
พระนามเต็ม Flavius Claudius Julianus
ราชวงศ์	Constantinian
พระราชบิดา	Julius Constantius
พระราชมารดา	Basilina
ศาสนา	Greco-Roman polytheism Previously Christianity

Julian (ละติน: Flavius Claudius Julianus; กรีก: Ἰουλιανός Iulianos; 17 November 331 – 26 June 363) was Roman emperor from 361 to 363, as well as a notable philosopher and author in Greek. His rejection of Christianity, and his promotion of Neoplatonic Hellenism in its place, caused him to be remembered as Julian the Apostate in Christian tradition.

Julian was a member of the Constantinian dynasty; his father Julius Constantius was a half-brother of Emperor Constantine the Great. After Constantine died in 337, his sons had many of their relatives executed to prevent rival claims to the throne. Julian's father was one of those murdered on their orders, but Julian and his half-brother Constantius Gallus were spared. The orphaned princes spent much of their lives under the control of their cousin, Emperor Constantius II. However, Constantius II allowed Julian to freely pursue an education in the Greek-speaking east, to the result that Julian became unusually cultured for an emperor of his time. In 354, the emperor executed Julian's brother Gallus. Julian himself was imprisoned, but he was spared at the request of Empress Eusebia. In 355, Constantius II summoned Julian to court and appointed him to rule Gaul. Despite his inexperience, Julian showed unexpected success in his new capacity, defeating and counterattacking Germanic raids across the Rhine and encouraging the ravaged provinces' return to prosperity. In 360, he was proclaimed emperor by his soldiers at Lutetia (Paris), sparking a civil war with Constantius. However, Constantius died before the two could face each other in battle, and named Julian as his successor.

In 363, Julian embarked on an ambitious campaign against the Sasanian Empire. The campaign was initially successful, securing a victory outside Ctesiphon in Mesopotamia. However, he did not attempt to besiege the capital. Julian instead moved into Persia's heartland, but he soon faced supply problems and was forced to retreat northwards while being ceaselessly harassed by Persian skirmishes. During the Battle of Samarra, Julian was mortally wounded under mysterious circumstances. He was succeeded by Jovian, a senior officer in the imperial guard, who was obliged to cede territory, including Nisibis, in order to save the trapped Roman forces.

Julian was a man of unusually complex character: he was "the military commander, the theosophist, the social reformer, and the man of letters". He was the last non-Christian ruler of the Roman Empire, and he believed that it was necessary to restore the Empire's ancient Roman values and traditions in order to save it from dissolution. He purged the top-heavy state bureaucracy, and attempted to revive traditional Roman religious practices at the expense of Christianity. His attempt to build a Third Temple in Jerusalem was probably intended to harm Christianity rather than please Jews. Julian also forbade the Christians from teaching and learning classical texts.

อ้างอิง

ข้อมูลสมัยโบราณ

• Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, Libri XV-XXV (books 15–25). See J.C. Rolfe, Ammianus Marcellinus, Harvard University Press, Cambridge Mass., 1935/1985. 3 Volumes.
• Ammianus Marcellinus, The Roman History of Ammianus Marcellinus During the Reigns of the Emperors Constantius, Julian, Jovianus, Valentinian, and Valens. Translated by C. D. Yonge. Full text at Internet Archive at The Roman History of Ammianus Marcellinus During the Reigns of the Emperors Constantius, Julian, Jovianus, Valentinian, and Valens. Gutenberg etext# 28587.
• Julian the emperor: containing Gregory Nazianzen's two Invectives and Libanius' Monody : with Julian's extant theosophical works., Translated by C.W. King. George Bell and Sons, London, 1888. At the Internet Archive
• Claudius Mamertinus, "Gratiarum actio Mamertini de consulato suo Iuliano Imperatori", Panegyrici Latini, panegyric delivered in Constantinople in 362, also as a speech of thanks at his assumption of the office of consul of that year
• Gregory Nazianzen, Orations, "First Invective Against Julian", "Second Invective Against Julian". Both transl. C.W. King, 1888.
• Libanius, Monody – Funeral Oration for Julian the Apostate. Transl. C.W. King, 1888.

ข้อมูลสมัยใหม่

• Athanassiadi, Polymnia (1992) [1981]. [[[:แม่แบบ:Googlebooks]] Julian: An Intellectual Biography]. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-07763-X. {{cite book}}: ตรวจสอบค่า |url= (help)
• Baker-Brian, Nicholas; Tougher, Shaun. (2012). Emperor and Author: The Writings of Julian the Apostate. The Classical Press of Wales. Swansea. ISBN 978-1-905125-50-0. http://www.classicalpressofwales.co.uk/emperor_author.htm
• Bowersock, G.W. (1978). [[[:แม่แบบ:Googlebooks]] Julian the Apostate]. London: Duckworth. ISBN 0-7156-1262-X. {{cite book}}: ตรวจสอบค่า |url= (help)
• Browning, Robert (1975). [[[:แม่แบบ:Googlebooks]] The Emperor Julian]. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. ISBN 0-297-77029-2. {{cite book}}: ตรวจสอบค่า |url= (help)
• Dodgeon, Michael H. & Samuel N.C. Lieu, The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars AD 226–363, Routledge, London, 1991. ISBN 0-203-42534-0
• Drinkwater, John F., The Alamanni and Rome 213–496 (Caracalla to Clovis), OUP Oxford 2007. ISBN 0-19-929568-9
• Lascaratos, John and Dionysios Voros. 2000 Fatal Wounding of the Byzantine Emperor Julian the Apostate (361–363 A.D.): Approach to the Contribution of Ancient Surgery. World Journal of Surgery 24: 615–619
• Murdoch, Adrian. The Last Pagan: Julian the Apostate and the Death of the Ancient World, Stroud, 2005, ISBN 0-7509-4048-4
• Phang, Sara E.; Spence, Iain; Kelly, Douglas; Londey, Peter, บ.ก. (2016). Conflict in Ancient Greece and Rome: The Definitive Political, Social, and Military Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO.
• Potter, David S. The Roman Empire at Bay AD 180–395, Routledge, New York, 2004. ISBN 0-415-10058-5
• Ridley, R.T., "Notes on Julian's Persian Expedition (363)", Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte, Vol. 22, No. 2, 1973, pp. 317–330
• Roberts, Walter E. & DiMaio, Michael (2002), "Julian the Apostate (360–363 A.D.)", De Imperatoribus Romanis
• Smith, Rowland. Julian's gods: religion and philosophy in the thought and action of Julian the Apostate, London, 1995. ISBN 0-415-03487-6
• Veyne, Paul. L'Empire Gréco-Romain. Seuil, Paris, 2005. ISBN 2-02-057798-4
• Wiemer, Hans-Ulrich & Stefan Rebenich, บ.ก. (2020). [[[:แม่แบบ:Googlebooks]] A Companion to Julian the Apostate]. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-41456-3. {{cite book}}: ตรวจสอบค่า |url= (help)

อ่านเพิ่ม

• García Ruiz, María Pilar, "Julian's Self-Representation in Coins and Texts." In Imagining Emperors in the Later Roman Empire, Ed. D.W.P. Burgersdijk and A.J. Ross. Leiden. Brill. 2018. 204-233. ISBN 978-90-04-37089-0.
• Gardner, Alice, Julian Philosopher and Emperor and the Last Struggle of Paganism Against Christianity, G.P. Putnam's Son, London, 1895. ISBN 0-404-58262-1 / ISBN 978-0-404-58262-3. Downloadable at Julian, philosopher and emperor.
• Hunt, David. "Julian". In The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume 13 (Averil Cameron & Peter Garnsey editors). CUP, Cambridge, 1998. ISBN 0-521-30200-5
• Kettenhofen, Erich (2009). "JULIAN". JULIAN – Encyclopaedia Iranica. Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. XV, Facs. 3. pp. 242–247.
• Lenski, Noel Emmanuel Failure of Empire: Valens and the Roman State in the Fourth Century AD University of California Press: London, 2003
• Lieu, Samuel N.C. & Dominic Montserrat: editors, From Constantine to Julian: A Source History Routledge: New York, 1996. ISBN 0-203-42205-8
• Neander, August, The Emperor Julian and His Generation, An Historical Picture, translated by G.V. Cox, John W. Parker, London, 1859. ISBN 0-217-34765-7 / ISBN 9780217347655. Downloadable at The Emperor Julian and his generation.
• Rendall, Gerald Henry, The Emperor Julian: Paganism and Christianity with Genealogical, Chronological and Bibliographical Appendices, George Bell and Sons, London, 1879. ISBN 1-152-51929-8 / ISBN 9781152519299. Downloadable at The Emperor Julian.
• Rohrbacher, David. Historians of Late Antiquity. Routledge: New York, 2002. ISBN 0-415-20459-3
• Rosen, Klaus. Julian. Kaiser, Gott und Christenhasser. Klett-Cotta, Stuttgart, 2006.

แหล่งข้อมูลอื่น

• ผลงานของ Waniosa Amedestir/ทดลองเขียน ที่โครงการกูเทินแบร์ค
• Laws of Julian. Two laws by Constantius II, while Julian was Caesar.
• Imperial Laws and Letters Involving Religion, some of which are by Julian relating to Christianity.
• A 4th century chalcedony portrait of Julian, Saint Petersburg, The State Hermitage Museum.
• Julian's Spin Doctor: The Persian Mutiny, Article by Adam J. Bravo.
• Rowland Smith's "Julian's Gods", Review by Thomas Banchich.
• Excerpt from by Adrian Murdoch, The Last Pagan at the California Literary Review.
• The Julian Society. A society of pagans who admire Julian.
• The Emperor Julian, Paganism and Christianity, by Gerald Henry Rendall
• Julian the Apostate why he was important, and his place in world history, by Andrew Selkirk
• Letters in Epistolographi graeci, R. Hercher (ed.), Parisiis, editore Ambrosio Firmin Didot, 1873, pp. 337–391.
• Entry in The Encyclopedia of Ancient History, doi:10.1002/9781444338386.wbeah12217
• ผลงานโดย Waniosa Amedestir/ทดลองเขียน บนเว็บ LibriVox (หนังสือเสียง ซึ่งเป็นสาธารณสมบัติ)

พระเป็นเจ้าในกลุ่มศาสนาอับราฮัม (God in Abrahamic religions)

The concept of God in Abrahamic religions is centred on the dedicated worship of a singular supreme deity. The three major monotheistic religions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, alongside the Baháʼí Faith, Samaritanism, Druze, and Rastafari, are all regarded as Abrahamic religions due to their shared worship of the God (referred to as Yahweh in Hebrew and as Allah in Arabic) that these traditions say revealed himself to Abraham. Abrahamic religions share the same distinguishing features:

• all of them originated from ancient Semitic religions in the geographical region of the Middle East;
• all of their theological traditions are to some extent influenced by the depiction of the God of Israel in the Hebrew Bible;
• all of them trace their roots to Abraham as a common patriarch.

The Abrahamic God in this sense is the conception of God that remains a common feature of all Abrahamic religions. God is conceived of as one, eternal, omnipotent, omniscient, and the creator of the universe. God is always referred to with masculine grammatical articles only, and further held to have the properties of holiness, justice, omnibenevolence and omnipresence. Proponents of Abrahamic faiths believe that God is also transcendent, meaning that he is outside of both space and time and therefore not subject to anything within his creation, but at the same time a personal God, involved, listening to prayer, and reacting to the actions of his creatures.

Opinions differ among scholars of religion on whether Mormonism belongs within the traditions of Christianity or whether it amounts to a distinct Abrahamic religion. The heterogenous Rastafari movement with roots in Jamaica is classified by some scholars as an international socio-religious movement, and by others as a separate Abrahamic religion or new religious movement.

Bibliography

• Betz, Arnold Gottfried (2000). "Monotheism". ใน Freedman, David Noel; Myer, Allen C. (บ.ก.). Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Wm. B. Eerdmans. pp. 916–917. ISBN 978-90-5356-503-2.
• Bremer, Thomas S. (2015). "Abrahamic religions". Formed From This Soil: An Introduction to the Diverse History of Religion in America. Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 19–20. ISBN 978-1-4051-8927-9. LCCN 2014030507. S2CID 127980793.
• Bulliet, Richard W. (2015). "Islamo-Christian Civilization". ใน Blidstein, Moshe; Silverstein, Adam J.; Stroumsa, Guy G. (บ.ก.). The Oxford Handbook of the Abrahamic Religions. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 109–120. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199697762.013.6. ISBN 978-0-19-969776-2. LCCN 2014960132. S2CID 170430270.
• Byrne, Máire (2011). The Names of God in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam: A Basis for Interfaith Dialogue. London: Continuum International. ISBN 978-1-44116-3-417. LCCN 2010050008.
• Christiano, Kevin J.; Kivisto, Peter; Swatos, Jr., William H., บ.ก. (2015) [2002]. "Excursus on the History of Religions". Sociology of Religion: Contemporary Developments (3rd ed.). Walnut Creek, California: AltaMira Press. pp. 254–255. doi:10.2307/3512222. ISBN 978-1-4422-1691-4. JSTOR 3512222. LCCN 2001035412. S2CID 154932078.
• Cohen, Charles L. (2020). The Abrahamic Religions: A Very Short Introduction. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-065434-4. LCCN 2019950996.
• Day, John (2002). Yahweh and the Gods and Goddesses of Canaan. Journal for the Study of the Old Testament: Supplement Series. Vol. 265. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press. doi:10.2307/3217888. ISBN 978-0-567-53783-6. JSTOR 3217888. S2CID 161791734.
• Hughes, Aaron W. (2012). "What Are "Abrahamic Religions"?". Abrahamic Religions: On the Uses and Abuses of History. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 15–33. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199934645.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-993464-5. S2CID 157815976.
• Niehr, Herbert (1995). "The Rise of YHWH in Judahite and Israelite Religion: Methodological and Religio-Historical Aspects". ใน Edelman, Diana Vikander (บ.ก.). The Triumph of Elohim: From Yahwisms to Judaisms. Leuven: Peeters Publishers. pp. 45–72. ISBN 978-90-5356-503-2. OCLC 33819403.
• Reynolds, Gabriel Said (2020). "God of the Bible and the Qur'an". Allah: God in the Qurʾān. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. pp. 203–253. ISBN 978-0-300-24658-2. JSTOR j.ctvxkn7q4. LCCN 2019947014. S2CID 226129509.
• Römer, Thomas (2015). The Invention of God. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. doi:10.4159/9780674915732. ISBN 978-0-674-50497-4. JSTOR j.ctvjsf3qb. S2CID 170740919.
• Smith, Mark S. (2003). "El, Yahweh, and the Original God of Israel and the Exodus". The Origins of Biblical Monotheism: Israel's Polytheistic Background and the Ugaritic Texts. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 133–148. doi:10.1093/019513480X.003.0008. ISBN 978-0-19-513480-3.
• Smith, Mark S. (2017). "YHWH's Original Character: Questions about an Unknown God". ใน Van Oorschot, Jürgen; Witten, Markus (บ.ก.). The Origins of Yahwism. Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft. Vol. 484. Berlin and Boston: De Gruyter. pp. 23–44. doi:10.1515/9783110448221-002. ISBN 978-3-11-042538-3. S2CID 187378834.
• Van der Toorn, Karel (1999). "God (I)". ใน Van der Toorn, Karel; Becking, Bob; Van der Horst, Pieter W. (บ.ก.). Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible (2nd ed.). Leiden: Brill Publishers. pp. 352–365. doi:10.1163/2589-7802_DDDO_DDDO_Godi. ISBN 978-90-04-11119-6.
• Van der Horst, Pieter W. (1999). "God (II)". ใน Van der Toorn, Karel; Becking, Bob; Van der Horst, Pieter W. (บ.ก.). Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible (2nd ed.). Leiden: Brill Publishers. pp. 365–370. doi:10.1163/2589-7802_DDDO_DDDO_Godii. ISBN 978-90-04-11119-6.

External links

• Abulafia, Anna Sapir (23 September 2019). "The Abrahamic religions". www.bl.uk. London: British Library. เก็บจากแหล่งเดิมเมื่อ 12 July 2020. สืบค้นเมื่อ 25 February 2021.
• Amzallag, Nissim (August 2018). "Metallurgy, the Forgotten Dimension of Ancient Yahwism". The Bible and Interpretation. University of Arizona. เก็บจากแหล่งเดิมเมื่อ 26 July 2020. สืบค้นเมื่อ 28 December 2020.
• Gaster, Theodor H. (26 November 2020). "Biblical Judaism (20th–4th century BCE)". Encyclopædia Britannica. Edinburgh: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. สืบค้นเมื่อ 28 December 2020.

เดลีย์เมล

หน้านี้เกี่ยวกับthe British national daily newspaper สำหรับความหมายอื่น ดูที่ Waniosa Amedestir/ทดลองเขียน (แก้ความกำกวม)

Daily Mail

ไฟล์:Daily Mail 10 July 2021.png Daily Mail front page on 11 July 2021
ประเภท	Daily newspaper
รูปแบบ	Tabloid
เจ้าของ	Daily Mail and General Trust
ผู้ก่อตั้ง	Alfred Harmsworth and Harold Harmsworth
ผู้เผยแพร่	DMG Media
บรรณาธิการ	Geordie Greig
ก่อตั้งเมื่อ	4 พฤษภาคม 1896 (1896-05-04)
นโยบายทางการเมือง	Right-wing
ภาษา	English
สำนักงานใหญ่	Northcliffe House 2 Derry Street London W8 5TT
ยอดจำหน่าย	1,134,184 (as of February 2020)
เลขมาตรฐานสากล (ISSN)	0307-7578
OCLC number	16310567
เว็บไซต์	www.dailymail.co.uk

The Daily Mail is a British daily middle-market newspaper and online news source published in London in a tabloid format. Founded in 1896, it is the United Kingdom's highest-circulated daily newspaper. Its sister paper The Mail on Sunday was launched in 1982, while Scottish and Irish editions of the daily paper were launched in 1947 and 2006 respectively. Content from the paper appears on the MailOnline website, although the website is managed separately and has its own editor.

The paper is owned by the Daily Mail and General Trust. Jonathan Harmsworth, 4th Viscount Rothermere, a great-grandson of one of the original co-founders, is the current chairman and controlling shareholder of the Daily Mail and General Trust, while day-to-day editorial decisions for the newspaper are usually made by a team led by the editor, Geordie Greig, who succeeded Paul Dacre in September 2018.

A survey in 2014 found the average age of its readers was 58, and it had the lowest demographic for 15- to 44-year-olds among the major British dailies. Uniquely for a British daily newspaper, it has a majority female readership, with women making up 52–55% of its readers. It had an average daily circulation of 1,134,184 copies in February 2020. Between April 2019 and March 2020 it had an average daily readership of approximately 2.180 million, of whom approximately 1.407 million were in the ABC1 demographic and .773 million in the C2DE demographic. Its website has more than 218 million unique visitors per month.

The Daily Mail has won a number of awards, including receiving the National Newspaper of the Year award from The Press Awards eight times since 1995, winning again in 2019. The Society of Editors selected it as the 'Daily Newspaper of the Year' for 2020. It has also been noted for its unreliability and widely criticised for its printing of sensationalist and inaccurate scare stories of science and medical research, and for instances of plagiarism and copyright infringement. In February 2017, the Daily Mail became the first source to be deprecated as an "unreliable source" for use as a reference on the English Wikipedia.

Criticism

Reliability

The Daily Mail's medical and science journalism has been criticised by some doctors and scientists, accusing it of using minor studies to generate scare stories or being misleading. In 2011, the Daily Mail published an article titled "Just ONE cannabis joint 'can cause psychiatric episodes similar to schizophrenia' as well as damaging memory". Dr. Matt Jones, the lead author of the study that is cited in the article was quoted by Cannabis Law Reform as saying: "This study does NOT say that one spliff will bring on schizophrenia".

Carbon Brief complained to the Press Complaints Commission about an article published in the Daily Mail titled "Hidden green tax in fuel bills: How a £200 stealth charge is slipped on to your gas and electricity bills" because the £200 figure was unexplained, unreferenced and, according to Ofgem, incorrect. The Daily Mail quietly removed the article from their website.

In 2013, the Met Office criticised an article about climate change in the Daily Mail by James Delingpole for containing "a series of factual inaccuracies". The Daily Mail in response published a letter from the Met Office chairman on its letters page, as well as offering to append the letter to Delingpole's article.

In February 2017, the Daily Mail became the first source to be deprecated as an "unreliable source" for use as a reference on the English Wikipedia. Its use as a reference is now "generally prohibited, especially when other more reliable sources exist". Support for the ban centred on "the Daily Mail's reputation for poor fact checking, sensationalism, and flat-out fabrication". Wikipedia's deprecation of the Daily Mail generated a significant amount of media attention, especially from the British media. Though the Daily Mail strongly contested this decision by the community, Wikipedia's co-founder Jimmy Wales backed the community's choice, stating: "I think what [the Daily Mail has] done brilliantly in this ad funded world (is) they've mastered the art of click bait, they've mastered the art of hyped up headlines, they've also mastered the art of, I'm sad to say, of running stories that simply aren't true. And that's why Wikipedia decided not to accept them as a source anymore. It's very problematic, they get very upset when we say this, but it's just fact." A February 2017 editorial in The Times commenting on the decision stated that "Newspapers make errors and have the responsibility to correct them. Wikipedia editors' fastidiousness, however, appears to reflect less a concern for accuracy than dislike of the Daily Mail's opinions." In 2018, the Wikipedia community upheld the Daily Mail's deprecation as a source.

In August 2018, the Mail Online deleted a lengthy news article titled "Powder Keg Paris" by journalist Andrew Malone which focused on "illegal migrants" living in the Paris suburb of Saint Denis, after a string of apparent inaccuracies were highlighted on social media by French activist Marwan Muhammad, including mistaking Saint-Denis, the city, for Seine-Saint-Denis, the department northeast of Paris. Local councillor Majid Messaoudene said that the article had set out to "stigmatise" and "harm" the area and its people. The journalist, Andrew Malone, subsequently deleted his Twitter account. In 2019, the IPSO ruled against the Daily Mail and confirmed in its ruling that the article was inaccurate.

In early 2019, the mobile version of the Microsoft Edge Internet browser started warning visitors to the MailOnline site, via its NewsGuard plugin, that "this website generally fails to maintain basic standards of accuracy and accountability" and "has been forced to pay damages in numerous high-profile cases". In late January 2019, the status of the MailOnline was changed by the Newsguard Plugin from Red to Green, updating its verdict to "this website generally maintains basic standards of accuracy and accountability". An Editors Note from Newsguard stated that "This label now has the benefit of the dailymail.co.uk's input and our view is that in some important respects their objections are right and we were wrong".

Further reading

• Addison, Adrian (2017). Mail Men: The Unauthorized Story of the Daily Mail (Atlantic Books, ).
• Bingham, Adrian (2013). "'The Paper That Foretold the War': The Daily Mail and the First World War". Daily Mail Historical Archive 1896–2004 (Cengage Learning).
• Bingham, Adrian, and Martin Conboy (2015). Tabloid Century: The Popular Press in Britain, 1896 to the present.
• Bingham, Adrian (2013). "The Voice of 'Middle England'? The Daily Mail and Public Life". Daily Mail Historical Archive 1896–2004 (Cengage Learning)
• McKenzie, Fred Arthur (1921). The Mystery of the Daily Mail, 1896-1921.
• Taylor, S. J. (1996). The Great Outsiders: Northcliffe, Rothermere and the Daily Mail.

แหล่งข้อมูลอื่น

• เว็บไซต์ทางการ

ชะรีอะฮ์ (เพิ่มข้อมูล)

ชะรีอะฮ์ (อาหรับ: شريعة, [ʃaˈriːʕa]) เป็นกฎหมายศาสนาตามธรรมเนียมอิสลาม ในภาษาอาหรับ คำว่า ชะรีอะฮ์ สื่อถึงกฎสวรรค์ที่เปลี่ยนแปลงไม่ได้ของพระเป็นเจ้า และอยู่ตรงข้ามกับฟิกฮ์ ซึ่งสื่อถึงการตีความทางวิชาการของมนุษย์ ลักษณะการใช้งานในยุคปัจจุบันยังคงพิพาทระหว่างแบบมูลฐานนิยมและนวยุคนิยม

Traditional theory of Islamic jurisprudence recognizes four sources of Sharia: the Quran, sunnah (authentic hadith), qiyas (analogical reasoning), and ijma (juridical consensus). Different legal schools—of which the most prominent are Hanafi, Maliki, Shafiʽi, and Hanbali—developed methodologies for deriving Sharia rulings from scriptural sources using a process known as ijtihad. Traditional jurisprudence (fiqh) distinguishes two principal branches of law, ʿibādāt (rituals) and muʿāmalāt (social relations), which together comprise a wide range of topics. Its rulings are concerned with ethical standards as much as with legal norms, assigning actions to one of five categories: mandatory, recommended, neutral, abhorred, and prohibited. Thus, some areas of Sharia overlap with the Western notion of law while others correspond more broadly to living life in accordance with God's will.

Classical jurisprudence was elaborated by private religious scholars, largely through legal opinions (fatwas) issued by qualified jurists (muftis). It was historically applied in Sharia courts by ruler-appointed judges, who dealt mainly with civil disputes and community affairs. Sultanic courts, the police and market inspectors administered criminal justice, which was influenced by Sharia but not bound by its rules. Non-Muslim (dhimmi) communities had legal autonomy to adjudicate their internal affairs. Over the centuries, Sunni Islam muftis were gradually incorporated into state bureaucracies, and fiqh was complemented by various economic, criminal and administrative laws issued by Muslim rulers. The Ottoman civil code of 1869–1876 was the first partial attempt to codify Sharia.

ในสมัยใหม่ กฎหมายดั้งเดิมของโลกมุสลิมส่วนมากถูกแทนที่ด้วยกฎเกณฑ์ที่ได้รับแรงบันดาลใจจากแม่แบบยุโรป Judicial procedures and legal education were likewise brought in line with European practice. While the constitutions of most Muslim-majority states contain references to Sharia, its classical rules were largely retained only in personal status (family) laws. Legislators who codified these laws sought to modernize them without abandoning their foundations in traditional jurisprudence. The Islamic revival of the late 20th century brought along calls by Islamism movements for full implementation of Sharia, including hudud corporal punishments, such as stoning. In some cases, this resulted in traditionalist legal reform, while other countries witnessed juridical reinterpretation of Sharia advocated by progressive reformers. Some Muslim-minority countries recognize the use of Sharia-based family laws for their Muslim populations. Sharia also continues to influence other aspects of private and public life.

บทบาทของชะรีอะฮ์กลายเป็นหัวข้อที่โต้แย้งกันทั่วโลก การนำกฎหมายที่มีฐานจากชะรีอะฮ์มาใช้ก่อให้เกิดความรุนแรงระหว่างชุมชนในประเทศไนจีเรีย and may have contributed to the breakup of Sudan. Some jurisdictions in North America have passed bans on use of Sharia, framed as restrictions on religious or foreign laws ยังมีข้อโต้แย้งว่ากฎหมายชะรีอะฮ์เหมาะสมกับประชาธิปไตย, สิทธิมนุษยชน, เสรีภาพทางความคิด, สิทธิสตรี, สิทธิของ LGBT และการธนาคารหรือไม่

ชะรีอะฮ์ (อาหรับ: شريعة; อังกฤษ: Sharia/Shari'ah) แปลว่า "ทาง" หรือ "ทางไปสู่แหล่งน้ำ" ใช้หมายถึงประมวลข้อปฏิบัติต่าง ๆ ของกฎหมายศาสนาของศาสนาอิสลาม ที่ครอบคลุมวิถีการดำเนินชีวิตของบุคคลและสาธารณชนที่มีพื้นฐานมาจากหลักนิติศาสตร์ (jurisprudence) ของศาสนาอิสลามสำหรับชาวมุสลิมใช้

กฎหมายชะรีอะฮ์ครอบคลุมด้านต่าง ๆ ของชีวิตประจำวันที่รวมทั้งการปกครอง เศรษฐกิจ การบริหารธุรกิจ การธนาคาร ระบบการทำสัญญา ความสัมพันธ์ในครอบครัว หลักของความสัมพันธ์ทางเพศ หลักการอนามัย และปัญหาของสังคม

กฎหมายชะรีอะฮ์ในปัจจุบันเป็นกฎหมายศาสนาที่ใช้กันอย่างกว้างขวางที่สุดและเป็นกฎหมายที่ปรากฏบ่อยที่สุดของระบบกฎหมายของโลกพอ ๆ กับคอมมอนลอว์ และซีวิลลอว์ ในระหว่างยุคทองของอิสลาม กฎหมายอิสลามอาจถือว่ามีอิทธิพลต่อการวิวัฒนาการของคอมมอนลอว์ ซึ่งก็ทำให้มีอิทธิพลต่อการวิวัฒนาการของคอมมอนลอว์ระดับสถาบันต่าง ๆ

ดูเพิ่ม

• ศาสนาอิสลาม

อ้างอิง

ข้อมูล

• Abiad, Nisrine (2008). Sharia, Muslim States and International Human Rights Treaty Obligations: A Comparative Study. British Institute of International and Comparative Law.
• Ali, Kecia (2010). Marriage and Slavery in Early Islam. Harvard University Press.
• Amanat, Abbas (2009). "Preface". ใน Abbas Amanat; Frank Griffel (บ.ก.). Shari'a: Islamic Law in the Contemporary Context. Stanford University Press (Kindle Edition).
• An-Na'im, Abdullahi Ahmed (1996). "Islamic Foundations of Religious Human Rights" (PDF). ใน Witte, John Jr.; Van der Vyver, Johan David (บ.ก.). Religious Human Rights in Global Perspective: Religious Perspectives. Vol. 1. The Hague / Boston / London: Martinus Nijhoff. ISBN 9789041101761. คลังข้อมูลเก่าเก็บจากแหล่งเดิม (PDF)เมื่อ 16 January 2014.
• Berger, Maurits S. (2014). "Fatwa". ใน Emad El-Din Shahin (บ.ก.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics. Oxford University Press.
• Berkey, Jonathan Porter (2003). The Formation of Islam: Religion and Society in the Near East, 600-1800. Cambridge University Press.
• Brown, Jonathan A. C. (2009). "Maṣlaḥah". ใน John L. Esposito (บ.ก.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Brown, Jonathan A. C. (2017). "Stoning and Hand Cutting—Understanding the Hudud and the Shariah in Islam". Yaqeen Institute. สืบค้นเมื่อ Mar 24, 2019.
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อ่านเพิ่ม

• Coulson, Noel J. (1964). A History of Islamic Law. Edinburgh: Edinburgh U.P.
• Potz, Richard (2011), Islamic Law and the Transfer of European Law, EGO – European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, retrieved: March 25, 2021 (pdf).
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แหล่งข้อมูลอื่น

• วิกิคำคม มีคำคมที่กล่าวโดย หรือเกี่ยวกับ Waniosa Amedestir/ทดลองเขียน
• Islamic law – in The Oxford Dictionary of Islam, via Oxford Islamic Studies Online
• Sharia by Knut S. Vikør – In The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics, via Bridging Cultures, National Endowment for the Humanities & George Mason University
• Law by Norman Calder et al – In The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World, via Oxford Islamic Studies
• Brunei implements sharia law – UNAA (United Nations)
• Sharia Law in the International Legal Sphere – Yale University
• Private Arrangements: 'Recognizing Sharia' in Britain – anthropologist John R. Bowen explains the working of Britain's sharia courts in a Boston Review article
• Division of Inheritance According to Qur'an เก็บถาวร 20 กุมภาพันธ์ 2015 ที่ เวย์แบ็กแมชชีน
• Explanation of "The Reward of the Omnipotent" is a manuscript, in Arabic, from the late 19th or early 20th century about Sharia
• อรอนงค์ ทิพย์พิมล. “กฎหมายชารีอะห์กับผู้หญิงอาเจะฮ์: ชายขอบของชายขอบ.” วารสารประวัติศาสตร์ ธรรมศาสตร์ 4, 1 (ม.ค.-มิ.ย. 2560), น. 115-58.

พระโคตมพุทธเจ้า (แปลส่วนหนึ่ง)

พระโคตมพุทธเจ้า
ข้อมูลทั่วไป
พระนามเดิม	สิทธัตถะ
พระนามอื่น	อังคีรส
วันประสูติ	ขึ้น 15 ค่ำ เดือน 6 80 ปีก่อนพุทธศักราช
สถานที่ประสูติ	ลุมพินีวัน, เนปาล
สถานที่บวช	ริมฝั่งแม่น้ำอโนมา
สถานที่บรรลุธรรม	ใต้ต้นพระศรีมหาโพธิ์ ริมฝั่งแม่น้ำเนรัญชรา
ตำแหน่ง	พระพุทธเจ้า
ปรินิพพาน	ขึ้น 15 ค่ำ เดือน 6 (ตามคติเถรวาท)
สถานที่ปรินิพพาน	กุสินารา, อินเดีย
ฐานะเดิม
ชาวเมือง	กบิลพัสดุ์, เนปาล
พระบิดา	พระเจ้าสุทโธทนะ
พระมารดา	พระนางสิริมหามายา
วรรณะเดิม	กษัตริย์
ราชวงศ์	ศากยะ
สถานที่รำลึก
สถานที่	สังเวชนียสถาน 4 ตำบล คือ ลุมพินีวัน พุทธคยา สารนาถ กุสินารา อารามสำคัญ คือ วัดเวฬุวัน วัดเชตวัน
สถานีย่อยพระพุทธศาสนา

พระโคตมพุทธเจ้า (ออกเสียง: โค-ตะ-มะ) มีพระนามเดิมในภาษาบาลีว่า สิทฺธตฺถ โคตม หรือในภาษาสันสกฤตว่า สิทฺธารฺถ เคาตมะ (อ่านว่า /สิดทาด —/) (เทวนาครี: सिद्धार्थ गौतम) เป็นพระพุทธเจ้าพระองค์ปัจจุบัน ผู้เป็นศาสดาของศาสนาพุทธ สาวกของพระองค์ไม่นิยมออกพระนามโดยตรง แต่เรียกตามพระสมัญญาว่า "ภควา" (พระผู้มีพระภาคเจ้า)

คัมภีร์พุทธศาสนาทั้งนิกายเถรวาทและนิกายมหายานบันทึกตรงกันว่า พระโคตมพุทธเจ้าทรงประสูติ 623 ปี ก่อนคริสต์ศักราช พระองค์ทรงดำรงพระชนมชีพอยู่ระหว่าง 80 ปีก่อนพุทธศักราช จนถึงเริ่มพุทธศักราชซึ่งเป็นวันปรินิพพาน ตรงกับ 543 ปี ก่อนคริสตกาลตามตำราไทยซึ่งอ้างอิงปฏิทินสุริยคติไทยและปฏิทินจันทรคติไทย และตรงกับ 483 ปีก่อนคริสตกาลตามปฏิทินสากล

พระโคตมพุทธเจ้าเป็นพระราชโอรสของพระเจ้าสุทโธทนะและพระนางสิริมหามายาแห่งแคว้นสักกะ โคตมโคตร อันเป็นราชสกุลวงศ์ที่ปกครองกรุงกบิลพัสดุ์มาช้านาน ก่อนออกผนวชทรงดำรงพระอิสสริยยศเป็นรัชทายาท เมื่อเสด็จออกผนวชและบรรลุสัมมาสัมโพธิญาณเป็นพระพุทธเจ้าแล้ว ทรงได้รับการถวายพระนามต่าง ๆ อาทิ พระศากยมุนี, พระพุทธโคดม, พระโคดมพุทธเจ้า ฯลฯ แต่ทรงเรียกพระองค์เองว่า ตถาคต แปลว่า พระผู้ไปแล้วอย่างนั้น คือ ทรงปฏิญาณว่า ทรงพ้นจากทุกข์ทั้งปวง สำเร็จแล้วซึ่งอรหัตผล

Waniosa Amedestir/ทดลองเขียน
ชื่ออื่น	ศากยมุนี
ส่วนบุคคล
เกิด	สิทธัตถะ โคตม ป. 563 ปีก่อน ค.ศ. หรือ 480 ปีก่อน ค.ศ. ลุมพินี สักกชนบท (ตามธรรมเนียมพุทธ)
มรณภาพ	ป. 483 ปีก่อน ค.ศ. หรือ 400 ปีก่อน ค.ศ. (80 พรรษา) กุสินารา แคว้นมัลละ (ตามธรรมเนียมพุทธ)
ที่ฝังศพ	เผา; แบ่งอัฐิในหมู่ผู้นับถือ
คู่สมรส	พระยโสธราเถรี
บุตร	พระราหุล
บุพการี	พระเจ้าสุทโธทนะ (บิดา) พระนางสิริมหามายา (มารดา)
รู้จักจาก	ผู้ก่อตั้งศาสนาพุทธ
ชื่ออื่น	ศากยมุนี
ตำแหน่งชั้นสูง
ผู้ดำรงตำแหน่งก่อนหน้า	พระกัสสปพุทธเจ้า
ผู้ดำรงตำแหน่งถัดมา	พระศรีอริยเมตไตรย
ชื่อสันสกฤต
สันสกฤต	สิทฺธารฺถ เคาตมะ
ชื่อบาลี
บาลี	สิทฺธตฺถ โคตม

พระโคตมพุทธเจ้า เป็นสมณะและผู้นำศาสนาที่มีชีวิตในเอเชียใต้เมื่อศตวรรษที่ 6 ถึง 5 ก่อนคริสตืศักราช และเป้นผู้ก่อตั้งศาสนาพุทธ

ตามพุทธประเพณี พระองค์ประสูติที่ลุมพินี (ปัจจุบันอยูในประเทศเนปาล) จากพระราชบิดามารดาในตระกูลศากยะ แต่สละจากคฤหัสถ์เพื่อใช้ชีวิตเป็นสมณะ หลังแสวงหา life of mendicancy, asceticism, and meditation, พระองค์จึงได้รับการตรัสรู้ที่พุทธคยา (ปัจจุบันอยู่ในประเทศอินเดีย) หลังจากนั้น พระองค์จึงเดินทางทั่วที่ราบลุ่มแม่น้ำสินธุ-คงคาตอนล่าง ให้เทศน์และจัดตั้งคณะสงฆ์ พระองค์สอนในด้านทางสายกลางระหว่าง sensual indulgence and severe asceticism, นำไปสู่นิพพาน นั่นคือ ปลอดจากอวิชชา, อุปาทาน, การกลับชาติมาเกิดและทุกข์ คำสอนของพระองค์ได้รับการสรุปไว้ในมรรคมีองค์แปด, a training of the mind that includes ethical training and meditative practices such as sense restraint, kindness toward others, mindfulness, and jhana/dhyana (meditation proper). He died in Kushinagar, attaining parinirvana. The Buddha has since been venerated by numerous religions and communities across Asia.

หลังจากปรินิพพานเพียงไม่กี่ศตวรรษ พระองค์กลายเป็นที่รู้จักด้วยตำแหน่ง พุทธะ ที่หมายถึง "ผู้รู้แจ้ง" or "Enlightened One." His teachings were compiled by the Buddhist community in the Vinaya, his codes for monastic practice, and the Sutta Piṭaka, a compilation of teachings based on his discourses. These were passed down in Middle Indo-Aryan dialects through an oral tradition. Later generations composed additional texts, such as systematic treatises known as Abhidharma, biographies of the Buddha, collections of stories about his past lives known as Jataka tales, and additional discourses, i.e., the Mahayana sutras.

ศัพทมูลวิทยา พระนาม และตำแหน่ง

The Buddha, Tapa Shotor monastery in Hadda, Afghanistan, 2nd century CE

Siddhārtha Gautama and Buddha Shakyamuni

According to Donald Lopez Jr., "... he tended to be known as either Buddha or Sakyamuni in China, Korea, Japan, and Tibet, and as either Gotama Buddha or Samana Gotama (“the ascetic Gotama”) in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia."

Buddha, "Awakened One" or "Enlightened One," is the masculine form of budh (बुध् ), "to wake, be awake, observe, heed, attend, learn, become aware of, to know, be conscious again," "to awaken" ""to open up" (as does a flower)," "one who has awakened from the deep sleep of ignorance and opened his consciousness to encompass all objects of knowledge." It is not a personal name, but a title for those who have attained bodhi (awakening, enlightenment). Buddhi, the power to "form and retain concepts, reason, discern, judge, comprehend, understand," is the faculty which discerns truth (satya) from falsehood.

The name of his clan was Gautama (Pali: Gotama). His given name, "Siddhārtha" (Sanskrit; P. Siddhattha; T. Don grub; C. Xidaduo; J. Shiddatta/Shittatta; K. Siltalta) means "He Who Achieves His Goal." The clan name of Gautama means "descendant of Gotama", "Gotama" meaning "one who has the most light," and comes from the fact that Kshatriya clans adopted the names of their house priests.

While the term "Buddha" is used in the Agamas and the Pali Canon, the oldest surviving written records of the term "Buddha" is from the middle of the 3rd century BCE, when several Edicts of Ashoka (reigned c. 269–232 BCE) mention the Buddha and Buddhism. Ashoka's Lumbini pillar inscription commemorates the Emperor's pilgrimage to Lumbini as the Buddha's birthplace, calling him the Buddha Shakyamuni (Brahmi script: 𑀩𑀼𑀥 𑀲𑀓𑁆𑀬𑀫𑀼𑀦𑀻 Bu-dha Sa-kya-mu-nī, "Buddha, Sage of the Shakyas").

Shakyamuni (ภาษาสันสกฤต: [ɕaːkjɐmʊnɪ bʊddʱɐ]) means "Sage of the Shakyas."

Tathāgata

Tathāgata (Pali; แม่แบบ:IPA-pi) is a term the Buddha commonly used when referring to himself or other Buddhas in the Pāli Canon. The exact meaning of the term is unknown, but it is often thought to mean either "one who has thus gone" (tathā-gata), "one who has thus come" (tathā-āgata), or sometimes "one who has thus not gone" (tathā-agata). This is interpreted as signifying that the Tathāgata is beyond all coming and going – beyond all transitory phenomena. A tathāgata is "immeasurable", "inscrutable", "hard to fathom", and "not apprehended."

Other epithets

A list of other epithets is commonly seen together in canonical texts and depicts some of his perfected qualities:

• Bhagavato (Bhagavan) – The Blessed one, one of the most used epithets, together with tathāgata
• Sammasambuddho – Perfectly self-awakened
• Vijja-carana-sampano – Endowed with higher knowledge and ideal conduct.
• Sugata – Well-gone or Well-spoken.
• Lokavidu – Knower of the many worlds.
• Anuttaro Purisa-damma-sarathi – Unexcelled trainer of untrained people.
• Satthadeva-Manussanam – Teacher of gods and humans.
• Araham – Worthy of homage. An Arahant is "one with taints destroyed, who has lived the holy life, done what had to be done, laid down the burden, reached the true goal, destroyed the fetters of being, and is completely liberated through final knowledge."
• Jina – Conqueror. Although the term is more commonly used to name an individual who has attained liberation in the religion Jainism, it is also an alternative title for the Buddha.

The Pali Canon also contains numerous other titles and epithets for the Buddha, including: All-seeing, All-transcending sage, Bull among men, The Caravan leader, Dispeller of darkness, The Eye, Foremost of charioteers, Foremost of those who can cross, King of the Dharma (Dharmaraja), Kinsman of the Sun, Helper of the World (Lokanatha), Lion (Siha), Lord of the Dhamma, Of excellent wisdom (Varapañña), Radiant One, Torchbearer of mankind, Unsurpassed doctor and surgeon, Victor in battle, and Wielder of power. Another epithet, used at inscriptions throughout South and Southeast Asia, is Maha sramana, "great sramana" (ascetic, renunciate).

อ้างอิง

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• ——— (1980), "Archaeological Excavations at Priprahwa and Ganwaria and the Identification of Kapilavastu", Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, 3 (1): 103–110, เก็บจากแหล่งเดิมเมื่อ 26 June 2015, สืบค้นเมื่อ 15 April 2015
• Skilton, Andrew (2004), A Concise History of Buddhism
• Smith, Vincent (1924), The Early History of India (4th ed.), Oxford: Clarendon
• Stein, Burton; Arnold, David (2012), A History of India, Oxford-Wiley
• Strong, J.S. (2001), The Buddha: A Beginner's Guide, Oneworld Publications, ISBN 978-1-78074-054-6
• ——— (2007), Relics of the Buddha, Motilal Banarsidass
• ——— (2015), Buddhisms: An Introduction, Oneworld Publications, ISBN 978-1-78074-506-0
• Swearer, Donald (2004), Becoming the Buddha, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press
• Thapar, Romila (2002), The Penguin History of Early India: From Origins to AD 1300, Penguin
• Thapar, Romila (2004), Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300, University of Californian Press, ISBN 0-520-24225-4
• Trainor, Kevin (2010), "Kapilavastu", in: Keown, Damien; Prebish, Charles S. Encyclopedia of Buddhism, London: Routledge, ISBN 978-1-136-98588-1
• Tripathy, Ajit Kumar (Jan 2014), "The Real Birth Place of Buddha. Yesterday's Kapilavastu, Today's Kapileswar" (PDF), The Orissa Historical Research Journal, Orissa State museum, 47 (1), คลังข้อมูลเก่าเก็บจากแหล่งเดิม (PDF)เมื่อ 18 March 2012
• Tuladhar, Swoyambhu D. (November 2002), "The Ancient City of Kapilvastu – Revisited" (PDF), Ancient Nepal (151): 1–7, เก็บ (PDF)จากแหล่งเดิมเมื่อ 9 January 2016, สืบค้นเมื่อ 15 April 2015
• Turpie, D (2001), Wesak And The Re-Creation of Buddhist Tradition (PDF) (master's thesis), Montreal, QC: McGill University, คลังข้อมูลเก่าเก็บจากแหล่งเดิม (PDF)เมื่อ 15 April 2007
• Twitchett, Denis, บ.ก. (1986), The Cambridge History of China, Vol. 1. The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 BC – AD 220, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-24327-8
• Upadhyaya, KN (1971), Early Buddhism and the Bhagavadgita, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, p. 95, ISBN 978-81-208-0880-5
• Vetter, Tilmann (1988), The Ideas and Meditative Practices of Early Buddhism, Brill
• von Hinüber, Oskar (2008). "Hoary past and hazy memory. On the history of early Buddhist texts". Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies. 29 (2): 193–210. เก็บจากแหล่งเดิมเมื่อ 15 November 2017. สืบค้นเมื่อ 15 November 2017.
• Waley, Arthur (July 1932), "Did Buddha die of eating pork?: with a note on Buddha's image", Melanges Chinois et Bouddhiques: 1931–1932, NTU: 343–354, คลังข้อมูลเก่าเก็บจากแหล่งเดิมเมื่อ 3 June 2011
• Walshe, Maurice (1995), The Long Discourses of the Buddha. A Translation of the Digha Nikaya, Boston: Wisdom Publications
• Warder, A.K. (1998). "Lokayata, Ajivaka, and Ajnana Philosophy". A Course in Indian Philosophy (2nd ed.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. ISBN 978-81-208-1244-4.
• ——— (2000), Indian Buddhism, Buddhism Series (3rd ed.), Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass
• ——— (2004). Indian Buddhism (reprint ed.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. เก็บจากแหล่งเดิมเมื่อ 15 April 2022. สืบค้นเมื่อ 13 October 2020.
• Wayman, Alex (1971), "Buddhist Dependent Origination", History of Religions, 10 (3): 185–203, doi:10.1086/462628, JSTOR 1062009, S2CID 161507469
• Wayman, Alex (1984a), Dependent Origination - the Indo-Tibetan Vision in Wayman (1984)
• Wayman, Alex (1984b), The Intermediate-State Dispute in Buddhism in Wayman (1984)
• Wayman, Alex (1984), George R. Elder (บ.ก.), Budddhist Insight: Essays by Alex Wayman, Motilall Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-0675-7
• Wayman, Alex (1997), Untying the Knots in Buddhism: Selected Essays, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-1321-2
• Weise, Kai (2013), The Sacred Garden of Lumbini – Perceptions of Buddha's Birthplace (PDF), Paris: UNESCO, ISBN 978-92-3-001208-3, คลังข้อมูลเก่าเก็บจากแหล่งเดิม (PDF)เมื่อ 30 August 2014
• Willemen, Charles, transl. (2009), Buddhacarita: In Praise of Buddha's Acts (PDF), Berkeley, CA: Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, ISBN 978-1-886439-42-9, คลังข้อมูลเก่าเก็บจากแหล่งเดิม (PDF)เมื่อ 27 August 2014
• Williams, Paul (2002). Buddhist Thought. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-20701-0.
• Wynne, Alexander (2004), The Origin of Buddhist Meditation, Routledge
• ——— (2007), The Origin of Buddhist Meditation (PDF), Routledge, ISBN 978-0-203-96300-5, เก็บ (PDF)จากแหล่งเดิมเมื่อ 20 October 2020, สืบค้นเมื่อ 2 January 2015
• Yusuf, Imitiyaz (2009). "Dialogue Between Islam and Buddhism through the Concepts Ummatan Wasaṭan (The Middle Nation) and Majjhima-Patipada (The Middle Way)". Islamic Studies. 48 (3): 367–394. ISSN 0578-8072. JSTOR 20839172. เก็บจากแหล่งเดิมเมื่อ 16 July 2021. สืบค้นเมื่อ 16 July 2021.

Further reading

• Bareau, André (1975), "Les récits canoniques des funérailles du Buddha et leurs anomalies: nouvel essai d'interprétation" [The canonical accounts of the Buddha's funerals and their anomalies: new interpretative essay], Bulletin de l'École Française d'Extrême-Orient (ภาษาฝรั่งเศส), Persée, LXII: 151–189, doi:10.3406/befeo.1975.3845
• ——— (1979), "La composition et les étapes de la formation progressive du Mahaparinirvanasutra ancien" [The composition and the etapes of the progressive formation of the ancient Mahaparinirvanasutra], Bulletin de l'École Française d'Extrême-Orient (ภาษาฝรั่งเศส), Persée, LXVI: 45–103, doi:10.3406/befeo.1979.4010
• Eade, J.C. (1995), The Calendrical Systems of Mainland South-East Asia (illustrated ed.), Brill, ISBN 978-90-04-10437-2
• Epstein, Ronald (2003), Buddhist Text Translation Society's Buddhism A to Z (illustrated ed.), Burlingame, CA: Buddhist Text Translation Society
• Jones, J.J. (1949), The Mahāvastu, Sacred Books of the Buddhists, vol. 1, London: Luzac & Co.
• Kala, U. (2006) [1724], Maha Yazawin Gyi (ภาษาพม่า), vol. 1 (4th ed.), Yangon: Ya-Pyei, p. 39
• Katz, Nathan (1982), Buddhist Images of Human Perfection: The Arahant of the Sutta Piṭaka, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass
• Kinnard, Jacob N. (1 October 2010). The Emergence of Buddhism: Classical Traditions in Contemporary Perspective. Fortress Press. p. ix. ISBN 978-0-8006-9748-8.
• Lamotte, Etienne (1988), History of Indian Buddhism: From the Origins to the Saka Era, Université catholique de Louvain, Institut orientaliste
• The life of the Buddha and the early history of his order, derived from Tibetan works in the Bkah-Hgyur and Bstan-Hgyur, followed by notices on the early history of Tibet and Khoten, แปลโดย Rockhill, William Woodville, London: Trübner, 1884
• Shimoda, Masahiro (2002), "How has the Lotus Sutra Created Social Movements: The Relationship of the Lotus Sutra to the Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra", ใน Reeves, Gene (บ.ก.), A Buddhist Kaleidoscope, Kosei
• Singh, Upinder (2016), A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century, Pearson, ISBN 978-81-317-1677-9
• Smith, Donald Eugene (2015). South Asian Politics and Religion. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-7908-3.
• Smith, Peter (2000), "Manifestations of God", A concise encyclopaedia of the Bahá'í Faith, Oxford: Oneworld Publications, ISBN 978-1-85168-184-6
• von Hinüber, Oskar (2009). "Cremated like a King: The funeral of the Buddha within the ancient Indian context". Journal of the International College of Postgraduate Buddhist Studies. 13: 33–66.

The Buddha

• Bechert, Heinz, บ.ก. (1996). When Did the Buddha Live? The Controversy on the Dating of the Historical Buddha. Delhi: Sri Satguru.
• Ñāṇamoli Bhikku (1992). The Life of the Buddha According to the Pali Canon (3rd ed.). Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society.
• Wagle, Narendra K (1995). Society at the Time of the Buddha (2nd ed.). Popular Prakashan. ISBN 978-81-7154-553-7.
• Weise, Kai (2013). The Sacred Garden of Lumbini: Perceptions of Buddha's birthplace. UNESCO. ISBN 978-92-3-001208-3.

Early Buddhism

• Rahula, Walpola (1974). What the Buddha Taught (2nd ed.). New York: Grove Press.
• Vetter, Tilmann (1988), The Ideas and Meditative Practices of Early Buddhism, Brill

Buddhism general

• Kalupahana, David J. (1994), A history of Buddhist philosophy, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass
• Robinson, Richard H.; Johnson, Willard L; Wawrytko, Sandra A; DeGraff, Geoffrey (1996). The Buddhist Religion: A Historical Introduction. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. ISBN 978-0-534-20718-2.

External links

• ผลงานของ Buddha ที่โครงการกูเทินแบร์ค
• ผลงานเกี่ยวกับ/โดย Buddha ที่อินเทอร์เน็ตอาร์ไคฟ์
• Error in Template:Internet Archive author: Siddhārtha Gautama doesn't exist.
• Error in Template:Internet Archive author: Shakyamuni doesn't exist.
• Buddha on In Our Time at the BBC. (listen now)
• A sketch of the Buddha's Life
• What Was The Buddha Like? by Ven S. Dhammika
• Who was the Buddha? Buddhism for Beginners

ก่อนหน้า		Waniosa Amedestir/ทดลองเขียน		ถัดไป
สมัยก่อนหน้า Kassapa Buddha	Buddhist Patriarch	สมัยต่อมา Maitreya Buddha
สมัยก่อนหน้า Krishna	Dashavatara Kali Yuga	สมัยต่อมา Kalki