ผลต่างระหว่างรุ่นของ "อารยธรรมลุ่มแม่น้ำสินธุ"

อารยธรรมลุ่มแม่น้ำสินธุ
ภูมิภาค	ที่ราบลุ่มแม่น้ำสินธุ ประเทศปากีสถาน และตามฤดูกาลสำหรับแม่น้ำกากการ์-ฮากรา ตะวันตกเฉียงเหนือของประเทศอินเดียและตะวันออกของปากีสถาน
สมัย	ยุคสำริดในเอเชียใต้
ช่วงเวลา	ป. 3300 – 1300 BCE
แหล่งโบราณคดีต้นแบบ	ฮารัปปา
แหล่งโบราณคดีสำคัญ	ฮารัปปา, โมเหนโจ-ดาโร (27°19′45″N 68°08′20″E / 27.32917°N 68.13889°E), โธลวีระ, คเนรีวลา, and Rakhigarhi
ก่อนหน้า	เมหร์ครห์
ถัดไป	วัฒนธรรมภาชนะทาสีเทา; วัฒนธรรมสุสานที่เอช

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รุ่นแก้ไขเมื่อ 00:59, 1 พฤศจิกายน 2563

ซากอารยธรรมที่ขุดค้นของโมเหนโจดาโร ในแคว้นสินธ์ ประเทศปากีสถาน ในภาพคือโรงอาบน้ำใหญ่

อารยธรรมลุ่มแม่น้ำสินธุ (อังกฤษ: Indus Valley Civilisation; IVC) เป็นอารยธรรม ยุคสัมริดในภูมิภาคตะวันตกเฉียงเหนือของเอเชียใต้ ดำรงอยู่ตั้งแต่ราว 3300 BCE ถึง 1300 BCE และยิ่งใหญ่ที่สุดในช่วงปี 2600 BCE ถึง 1900 BCE^[1]^[a] อารยธรรมลุ่มแม่น้ำสินธุ, อียิปต์โบราณ และ เมโสโปเตเมีย เป็นสามอารยธรรมยุคเริ่มแรกของโลก พื้นที่ที่เคยเป็นอารยธรรมลุ่มแม่น้ำสินธุนั้นในปัจจุบันอยู่ในพื้นที่ของประเทศอัฟกานิสถาน, ส่วนใหญ่ของประเทศปากีสถาน และทางตะวันตกถึงตะวันตกเฉียงเหนือของประเทศอินเดีย^[2]^[b] อารยธรรมนี้เจริญรุ่งเรืองอยู่บนที่ลุ่มริมแม่น้ำสินธุซึ่งไหลผ่านตลอดประเทศปากีสถานและระบบแม่น้ำที่มีน้ำตลอดทั้งปี ซึ่งส่วนใหญ่ได้น้ำจากมรสุม และแม่น้ำตามฤดูกาล แม่น้ำกากการ์-ฮากรา^[1]^[3]

เมืองต่าง ๆ ของอารยธรรมเป็นที่รู้จักในฐานะเมืองที่มีการวางผังเมือง, บ้านที่สร้างจากอิฐอบ, ระบบระบายน้ำและชลประทานที่ซับซ้อน, กลุ่มของอาคารที่ไม่ใช่เพื่อการอยู่อาศัย และวิธีการใหม่ ๆ ในหัตถกรรม (ผลิตภัณฑ์จากคาร์เนเลียนและการสลักตราประทับ) และความสามารถในการแยกโลหะออกจากแร่ (ทองแดง, สำริด, ตะกั่ว, ดีบุก)^[4] เมืองใหญ่สองแห่งของอารยธรรมคือโมเฮนโจ-ดาโร และ ฮารัปปา เป็นไปได้ว่ามีประชากรมากถึง 30,000 และ 60,000 คน^[5]^[c] และในช่วงเวลารุง้เรืองสูงสุดอาจมีประชากรมากถึงหนึ่งถึงห้าล้านคน^[6]^[d]

หมายเหตุ

↑ Wright: "Mesopotamia and Egypt ... co-existed with the Indus civilization during its florescence between 2600 and 1900 BC."^[1]
↑ Wright: "The Indus civilisation is one of three in the 'Ancient East' that, along with Mesopotamia and Pharaonic Egypt, was a cradle of early civilisation in the Old World (Childe, 1950). Mesopotamia and Egypt were longer lived, but coexisted with Indus civilisation during its florescence between 2600 and 1900 B.C. Of the three, the Indus was the most expansive, extending from today's northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and India."^[2]
↑ Dyson: "Mohenjo-daro and Harappa may each have contained between 30,000 and 60,000 people (perhaps more in the former case). Water transport was crucial for the provisioning of these and other cities. That said, the vast majority of people lived in rural areas. At the height of the Indus valley civilization the subcontinent may have contained 4-6 million people."^[5]
↑ McIntosh: "The enormous potential of the greater Indus region offered scope for huge population increase; by the end of the Mature Harappan period, the Harappans are estimated to have numbered somewhere between 1 and 5 million, probably well below the region's carrying capacity."^[6]

อ้างอิง

↑ ^1.0 ^1.1 ^1.2 Wright 2009, p. 1.
↑ ^2.0 ^2.1 Wright 2009.
↑ Giosan et al. 2012.
↑ Wright 2009, pp. 115–125.
↑ ^5.0 ^5.1 Dyson 2018, p. 29.
↑ ^6.0 ^6.1 McIntosh 2008, p. 187.

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Srinivasan, Doris (1975). "The so-called Proto-Śiva seal from Mohenjo-Daro: An iconological assessment". Archives of Asian Art. 29: 47–58. JSTOR 20062578. {{cite journal}}: |ref=harv ไม่ถูกต้อง (help)
Srinivasan, Doris Meth (1997). Many Heads, Arms and Eyes: Origin, Meaning and Form in Multiplicity in Indian Art. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-10758-8. {{cite book}}: |ref=harv ไม่ถูกต้อง (help)
Staubwasser, M.; Sirocko, F.; Grootes, P. M.; Segl, M. (2003). "Climate change at the 4.2 ka BP termination of the Indus valley civilization and Holocene south Asian monsoon variability". Geophysical Research Letters. 30 (8): 1425. Bibcode:2003GeoRL..30.1425S. doi:10.1029/2002GL016822. ISSN 0094-8276.
Sullivan, Herbert P. (1964). "A Re-Examination of the Religion of the Indus Civilization". History of Religions. 4 (1): 115–125. doi:10.1086/462498. JSTOR 1061875. {{cite journal}}: |ref=harv ไม่ถูกต้อง (help)
Thapar, Romila (2004). Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-24225-8. {{cite book}}: |ref=harv ไม่ถูกต้อง (help)
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Wright, Rita P. (2009). The Ancient Indus: Urbanism, Economy, and Society. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-57219-4. สืบค้นเมื่อ 29 September 2013.

[2] Wright: "Mesopotamia and Egypt ... co-existed with the Indus civilization during its florescence between 2600 and 1900 BC."^[1]

[4] Wright: "The Indus civilisation is one of three in the 'Ancient East' that, along with Mesopotamia and Pharaonic Egypt, was a cradle of early civilisation in the Old World (Childe, 1950). Mesopotamia and Egypt were longer lived, but coexisted with Indus civilisation during its florescence between 2600 and 1900 B.C. Of the three, the Indus was the most expansive, extending from today's northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and India."^[2]

[8] Dyson: "Mohenjo-daro and Harappa may each have contained between 30,000 and 60,000 people (perhaps more in the former case). Water transport was crucial for the provisioning of these and other cities. That said, the vast majority of people lived in rural areas. At the height of the Indus valley civilization the subcontinent may have contained 4-6 million people."^[5]

[10] McIntosh: "The enormous potential of the greater Indus region offered scope for huge population increase; by the end of the Mature Harappan period, the Harappans are estimated to have numbered somewhere between 1 and 5 million, probably well below the region's carrying capacity."^[6]

[FOOTNOTEWright20091-1] 1.0 ^1.1 ^1.2 Wright 2009, p. 1.

[FOOTNOTEWright2009-3] 2.0 ^2.1 Wright 2009.

[FOOTNOTEGiosanCliftMacklinFuller2012-5] Giosan et al. 2012.

[FOOTNOTEWright2009115–125-6] Wright 2009, pp. 115–125.

[FOOTNOTEDyson201829-7] 5.0 ^5.1 Dyson 2018, p. 29.

[FOOTNOTEMcIntosh2008187-9] 6.0 ^6.1 McIntosh 2008, p. 187.

[1]

[a]

[2]

[b]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[c]

[6]

[d]

@@ บรรทัด 23: / บรรทัด 23: @@
 == อ้างอิง ==
 {{รายการอ้างอิง}}
+=== บรรณานุกรม ===
+{{Refbegin|30em}}
+<!-- A -->
+* {{cite book |author=Allchin, Bridget |year=1997 |title=Origins of a Civilization: The Prehistory and Early Archaeology of South Asia |location=New York |publisher=Viking |ref=harv|author-link=Bridget Allchin }}
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+*{{cite journal |last1=Bar-Matthews |first1=Miryam |last2=Ayalon |first2=Avner |title=Mid-Holocene climate variations revealed by high-resolution speleothem records from Soreq Cave, Israel and their correlation with cultural changes |journal=The Holocene |volume=21 |issue=1 |year=2011 |pages=163–171 |issn=0959-6836 |doi=10.1177/0959683610384165|bibcode=2011Holoc..21..163B |s2cid=129380409 }}
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+*{{cite journal |last1=Clift |first1=P.D. |last2=Carter|first2=A. |last3=Giosan |first3=L. |last4=Durcan |first4=J. |last5=Duller |first5=G.A.T. |last6=Macklin |first6=M. G. |last7=Alizai |first7=A. |last8=Tabrez |first8=A.R. |last9=Danish |first9=M. |last10=VanLaningham |first10=S. |last11=Fuller |first11=D. Q. |title=U-Pb zircon dating evidence for a Pleistocene Sarasvati River and capture of the Yamuna River |journal=Geology |volume=40|issue=3 |year=2012 |pages=211–214 |issn=0091-7613 |doi=10.1130/G32840.1|bibcode=2012Geo....40..211C }}
+* {{cite book | last1 =Coningham | first1 =Robin |author1link=Robin Coningham | last2 =Young | first2 =Ruth | year =2015 | title =The Archaeology of South Asia: From the Indus to Asoka, c. 6500 BCE – 200 CE | publisher =Cambridge University Press}}
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+* {{cite book |last=Dani|first=Ahmad Hassan|authorlink=Ahmad Hasan Dani|year=1984|title=Short History of Pakistan (Book 1)|publisher=University of Karachi|ref=harv}}
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+* {{cite journal | last1 =Derenko | first1 =Miroslava | year =2013 | title =Complete Mitochondrial DNA Diversity in Iranians | journal =PLOS ONE |volume=8 |issue=11 |page=80673 | doi =10.1371/journal.pone.0080673 | pmid=24244704 | pmc=3828245|bibcode=2013PLoSO...880673D }}
+* {{cite journal |last=Dikshit |first=K.N. |year=2013 |title=Origin of Early Harappan Cultures in the Sarasvati Valley: Recent Archaeological Evidence and Radiometric Dates |journal=Journal of Indian Ocean Archaeology |issue=9 |url=http://server2.docfoc.com/uploads/Z2015/11/21/vESLakMBYz/45a03572f94e7a873d7c350293cca188.pdf |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170118032736/http://server2.docfoc.com/uploads/Z2015/11/21/vESLakMBYz/45a03572f94e7a873d7c350293cca188.pdf |archivedate=18 January 2017 }}
+*{{cite book |last=Dyson |first=Tim |title=A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ |year=2018 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-882905-8}}
+<!-- F -->
+*{{cite book |last=Fisher |first=Michael H. |title=An Environmental History of India: From Earliest Times to the Twenty-First Century |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kZVuDwAAQBAJ |year=2018 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-11162-2}}
+<!-- G -->
+* {{cite journal | last1 =Gallego Romero | first1 =Irene | year =2011 | title =Herders of Indian and European Cattle Share their Predominant Allele for Lactase Persistence | journal =Mol. Biol. Evol. | doi =10.1093/molbev/msr190 | display-authors =etal | pmid=21836184 | volume=29 | issue =1 | pages=249–260| doi-access =free }}
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+*{{cite book |last=Habib|first=Irfan|authorlink=Irfan Habib|title=The Indus Civilization|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t4gUjwEACAAJ|year=2015|publisher=[[Tulika Books]]|isbn=978-93-82381-53-2}}
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+* {{cite book |ref=harv|last=Hiltebeitel|first=Alf |authorlink=Alf Hiltebeitel |editor=Adluri, Vishwa |editor2=Bagchee, Joydeep|title=When the Goddess was a Woman: Mahabharata Ethnographies – Essays by Alf Hiltebeitel| chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZupXwid01CoC|year=2011|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-19380-2 |chapter=The Indus Valley "Proto-Śiva", Re-examined through Reflections on the Goddess, the Buffalo, and the Symbolism of vāhanas}}
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+* {{cite journal | last =Kathiroli | year=2004|title=Recent Marine Archaeological Finds in Khambhat, Gujarat |journal=Journal of Indian Ocean Archaeology |issue=1 |pages=141–149 |ref=harv |display-authors=etal}}
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+* {{cite book |last=Masson|first=Charles|title=Narrative of Various Journeys in Balochistan, Afghanistan and the Panjab: Including a Residence in Those Countries from 1826 to 1838|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nqxUw0Ybq9EC|volume=Volume 1|year=1842|publisher=Richard Bentley|location=London}}
+* {{cite book|last=McIntosh|first=Jane|title=A Peaceful Realm: The Rise And Fall of the Indus Civilization|location=Boulder|publisher=Westview Press|year=2001|isbn=978-0-8133-3532-2|ref=harv|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/peacefulrealmri00mcin}}
+*{{cite book |last=McIntosh|first=Jane|title=The Ancient Indus Valley: New Perspectives|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1AJO2A-CbccC|year=2008|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-57607-907-2}}
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+* {{cite journal | last1 =Narasimhan | first1 =Vagheesh M. |display-authors=et al | year =2019 | title =The formation of human populations in South and Central Asia | journal =Science|volume= 365|issue= 999| pages =eaat7487 | doi =10.1126/science.aat7487 | pmid =31488661 | pmc =6822619 }}
+* {{cite book |editor-first=Nayanjot |editor-last=Lahiri|year=2000|title=The Decline and Fall of the Indus Civilisation|isbn=978-81-7530-034-7|publisher=Permanent Black|location=Delhi|ref=harv}}
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+* {{cite journal | last1 =Palanichamy | first1 =Malliya Gounder | year =2015 | title =West Eurasian mtDNA lineages in India: an insight into the spread of the Dravidian language and the origins of the caste system | journal =Human Genetics |volume=134 |issue=6 |pages=637–647 |doi=10.1007/s00439-015-1547-4 | pmid=25832481| s2cid =14202246 }}
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+* <span class="citation web" id="Reference-Parpola-2005">{{cite web |authorlink=Asko Parpola |last=Parpola |first=Asko |url=http://www.harappa.com/script/indusscript.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060306111112/http://www.harappa.com/script/indusscript.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=6 March 2006 |title=Study of the Indus Script |date=19 May 2005 |ref=harv}} (50th ICES Tokyo Session)</span><!-- This element is used linked to from the inline references, please don't delete -->
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+<!-- R -->
+*{{cite journal |last1=Rashid |first1=Harunur |last2=England |first2=Emily |last3=Thompson |first3=Lonnie |last4=Polyak |first4=Leonid |title=Late Glacial to Holocene Indian Summer Monsoon Variability Based upon Sediment Records Taken from the Bay of Bengal |journal=Terrestrial, Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences |volume=22 |issue=2 |year=2011 |pages=215–228 |issn=1017-0839 |doi=10.3319/TAO.2010.09.17.02(TibXS)|doi-access=free }}
+<!-- S -->
+* {{cite journal | last1 =Sarkar | first1 =Anindya | year =2016 | title =Oxygen isotope in archaeological bioapatites from India: Implications to climate change and decline of Bronze Age Harappan civilization | journal =Scientific Reports | volume =6 | page =26555 | doi=10.1038/srep26555| pmid =27222033 | pmc =4879637 | bibcode =2016NatSR...626555S }}
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+<!-- W -->
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+{{Refend}}
 {{คอมมอนส์-หมวดหมู่|Indus Valley Civilization|อารยธรรมลุ่มแม่น้ำสินธุ}}